THE  WORKER 
AND  HIS  BIBLE 

EISELEN-BARCLAY 


lifornia 
ional 

lity 


7  r 


724  N.  Normandie  Avenue 
Los  Angeles,  California 


THE  WORKER  AND  WORK  SERIES 


THE  JUNIOR  WORKER  AND  WORK 

JOSEPHINE  L.  BALDWIN 

THE  ADULT  WORKER  AND  HIS  WORK 

WADE  CRAWFORD  BARCLAY 

LYNDONaB.  PHIFER 

THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

FREDERICK   CARL   EISELEN 

with 
WADE  CRAWFORD  BARCLAY 

THE  BEGINNERS'  WORKER  AND  WORK 

FREDERICA  BEARD 

THE  SUPERINTENDENT, 

FRANK  L.  BROWN 

LEADERS  OF  YOUTH 

HUGH  HENRY  HARRIS 

THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  CHURCH 

ERIC  McCOY  NORTH 

LEADERS  OF  YOUNG  PEOPLE 

FRANK  WADE  SMITH 

PRIMARY  WORKER  AND  WORK 

MARION  THOMAS 


THE  WORKER  AND  WORK  SERIES 

HENRY  H.   MEYER,  EDITOR 


By 

F.  C.  EISELEN  and 
WADE  CRAWFORD    BARCLAY 


Approved  by  the  Committee  on  Curriculum 

of  the  Board  of  Sunday  Schools  of  the 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church 


THE    METHODIST   BOOK   CONCERN 
NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI 


Copyright,  1909,  by 
THE  BOARD  OF  SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 

OF  THE 
METHODIST   EPISCOPAL    CHURCH 


Printed  In  the  United  States  of  America 


First  Edition  Printed  October,  1909 

Reprinted  March  and  November,  1911;  April  and  October,  1912;  June  and 
October,  1913;  February,  1914;  February  and  November,  1915;  February, 
March,  September,  October,  and  November,  1916;  April,  I9I75  January,  1918, 
December,  1919;  February,  July,  and  December,  1920;  June,  1921;  March 
and  November,  1922;  October,  1923;  January  and  September,  1924;  February 
and  April,  1925;  January  and  October,  1926;  February  and  March,  1927 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BIBLE 

PACK 

I.  THE  BIBLE — A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE      ...  7 

II.  THE  BIBLE — RECORDS  OF  DIVINE  REVELATION     •  16 

III.  How  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE 23 

IV.  WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE       .....  35 
V.  How  STUDY  THE  BIBLE    ......  46 

PART  II 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 

VI.  THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH  AND 

JOSHUA          ........59 

VII.   THE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH         .          68 
VIII.   THE  JUDGES  AND  THE  UNITED  MONARCHY  76 

IX.   THE   DIVIDED  MONARCHY,   THE   EXILE,  AND   THE 

RESTORATION -87 

X.  THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  OF  THE  OLD  TESTA- 
MENT          99 

XI.  THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT    in 
XII.  THE  HEBREW  PROPHETS  TO   THE   CLOSE  OF  THE 

EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C.    •        •       -        •        •        124 
XIII.  THE  PROPHETS  SUBSEQUENT  TO  THE  EIGHTH  CEN- 
TURY B.  C.    •        -     ' 137 

3 


CONTENTS 


PACK 

XIV.  NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES    -,       •        •       -        -        -153 

XV.  THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS 163 

-  &     XVI.  THE  GOSPELS] 174 

,XVIL  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY       195 

&YII1.  TH£  LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL     ....    205 

XIX.  THE  LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL — CONTINUED    -        219 

XX.  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLES  AND  REVELATION       -       .    230 


PART  I 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  STUDY  OF 
THE  BIBLE 

BY  F.  C.  EISELEN 


CHAPTER  I 
THE  BIBLE— A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE 

1.  The  Bible  a  Collection  of  Books.  The  word  Bible  is 
derived  from  the  Greek.  It  -is  the  plural  form  biblia  of  a 
noun  biblion,  which  may  be  translated  "Little  Book."  From 
the  Greek  language  the  word  passed  into  the  Latin,  where 
biblia  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  noun  in  the  singular.  As 
such  it  was  early  adopted  into  the  language  of  the  western 
Church,  and  it  is  so  used  in  the  languages  of  modern  Europe. 
The  use  of  the  noun  as  a  singular  is  responsible  for  much 
misapprehension,  because  the  Bible  can  never  be  rightly  ap- 
preciated  unless  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  so  much 
one  book  as  a  library  consisting  of  many  books,  written  by 
different, ^authors,  in  different  times  and  places,  and  repre- 
senting different  stages  of  religious  and  ethical  development. 
There  are  sixty-six  separate  writings  in  the  collection  as 
found  in  the  modern  English  translations.  The  Bible  is  di- 
vided into  two  great  divisions  called  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  New  Testament  respectively.  The  designation  Testa- 
ment is  somewhat  misleading.  It. arose  from  an  accidental 
mistranslation  into  Latin  of  a  Greek  word  meaning  covenant, 
which  in  turn  goes  back  to  a  Hebrew  word  having  the  same 
meaning.  Hence  it  would  be  far  more  accurate  to  speak  of 
the  Old  Covenant  and  the  Xew  Covenant;  and,  indeed,  one 
of  the  early  Church  fathers  speaks  of  "the  divine  Scriptures, 
the  so-called  Old  and  New  Covenants."  We  have,  then,  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  various  records  of  the  ,two 


8  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

0\ 

dispensations,   or  covenants,  centering  in   Moses   and  Jesus 

respectively. 

2.  Contents  of  the    Old   Testament.       Of    the    sixty-six 
books  in  the  Bible,  thirty-nine  belong  to  the  Old  Testament, 

-  ^7   twenty-seven  to  the  New.    The  thirty-nine  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  ordinarily  arranged  in  four  groups: 

I.   Law — Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deu- 
teronomy         5 

II.  History — Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  I  and  2  Samuel, 
I  and  2  Kings,  I  and  2  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Ne- 
hemiah,  Esther  12 

III.  Poetry — Job,      Psalms,      Proverbs,      Ecclesiastes, 

Song   of    Songs 5 

IV.  Prophecy — (i)    Major    Prophets:     Isaiah,    Jere- 

miah, Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  Daniel 5 

(2)  Minor  Prophets :  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos, 
Obadiah,  Jonah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi li 

Total    39 

3.  Contents  of  the   New   Testament.     The  twenty-seven 
books    of   the    New    Testament    may    be    arranged    in    three 
groups : 

I.    Historical — The   Gospels :  Matthew,  Mark,  Luke, 

John ;    The  Acts 5 

II.  Doctrinal — The  Epistles:  Romans,  I  and  2  Co- 
rinthians, Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
ColossiansJji  and  2  Thessalonians,  I  and  2 
Timothy,  Titus,  Philemon,  Hebrews,  Tames, 

i  and. 2  Peter,  i,  2,  and  3  John,  Jude 21 

ill.  Apocalyptic — Revelation    I 

Total 


A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE  9 

The  four  Gospels  portray,  from  different  viewpoints,  the 
life,  teaching,  and  work  of  Jesus ;  Acts  records  the  founding 
of  the  Christian  Church  and  its  earliest  history,  centering 
the  account  chiefly  around  the  experiences  of  Peter  and  PauL 
The  doctrinal  books  are  in  the  form  of  letters,  written  by 
the  leaders  of  the  Christian  movement  to  Churches  and  in- 
dividuals for  the  purpose  of  instructing  them  more  fully  in. 
the  faith  and  aiding  them  in  various  crises  confronting  the 
Christians  during  the  early  years  of  the  Church's  history.. 
Revelation  is  in  the  form  of  a  vision  portraying  the  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

4.  Different  Kinds  of  Literature  in  the  Old  Testament, 
The  Bible  contains  sublime  specimens  of /history,' law,  poetry, 
^Oratory,  in  fact,  of  almost  every  kind  of  literature  known 
outside  of  the  Bible.  To  the  inquiry  concerning  the  reason 
of  these  different  kinds  of  literature  the  writer  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  suggests  an  answer  in  the  words  (1:1) 
"God  having  spoken  ...  I'M  divers  manners;"  which 
means  that  in  His  attempt  to  reach  the  human  heart  and 
conscience  God  used  different  methods  and  means.  For  ex- 
ample, God  may  reveal  Himself  in  the  events  of  history,  or 
He  may  make  His  appeal  through  'the  object  lessons  of  the 
ritual  and  ceremonial;  He  may  use  as  mediators  especially 
well  qualified  individuals,  to  whom  He  can  make  Himself 
,kn°wn»  or  He  may  dispense  with  the  external  means  and 
influence  more  directly  the  human  soul.  These  are  some  of 
the  means  by  which  God  makes  Himself  known  to-day,  and 
these  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  God  made  Himself 
known  during  the  period  covered  by  the  Biblical  records.  It 
is  self-evident  that  when  attempts  are  made  to  record  or 
interpret  these  various  manifestations  of  God  different  kinds- 
of  literature  must  be  used,  in  order  to  portray  most  vividly 
the  truth  or  truths  expressed  by  God.  The  several  kinds 
of  literature,  therefore,  are  the  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
manifold  modes  of  divine  revelation.  In  the  Qld  Testa- 
ment five  kinds  of  literature  may  be  distinguished:  the  Pro- 


to  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

phetic,  Vhe  Wisdom/the  Devotional,  the  Legal  or  Priestly, 
and  the^Historical.  In  their  production  four  classes  of  re- 
ligious workers  were  active:  the  Prophets,  the  Wise  Men, 
the  Priests  (compare  Jcr.  18:18),  and  the  Psalmists. 

a.  The  Prophetic  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.    The 
Prophetic   Literature   owes    its    origin   to   prophetic   activity. 
The   prophets   towered   above   their   contemporaries   through 
purity  of  character/^trength  of  intellecVs'incerity  of  purpose, 

/V)intimacy  of  communion  with  God,  ari^lpecial  illumination  by 
the  Divine  Spirit.  As  a  result  of  these  qualifications  they 
•were  able  to  see  facts  and  understand  truths  hidden  from 
the  eyes  and  minds  of  those  who  did  not  live  in  the  same 
intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah.  Their  high  conceptions  of 
the  character  of  God  enabled  them  to  appreciate  the  divine 
ideals  of  righteousness,  and  they  sought  with  flaming  en- 
thusiasm to  impress  the  truths  burning  in  their  hearts  upon 
their  less  enlightened  contemporaries.  In  carrying  out  this 
purpose  they  became  'statesmen,  Social  reformers,  and  re- 
ligious and  ethical^eachers.  No  records  have  been  preserved 
of  the  utterances  of  the  earliest  prophets ;  but  when,  with  the 
general  advance  in  culture,  reading  and  writing  became  more 
common,  the  prophets,  anxious  to  reach  a  wider  circle  and 
to  preserve  their  messages  for  more  willing  ears,  put  their 
messages  into  writing;  and  to  this  new  departure  we  owe 
the  sublime  specimens  of  prophetic  literature  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

b.  The  Wisdom  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.    In  his 
direct  appeal  to  heart  and  conscience  the  ancient  prophet  re- 
sembles  the   modern   preacher.     Like   the   prophet    and   the 
preacher,  the  Wise_Man   sought  to   make  the   Divine  will 
known  to  others,  but  in  his  method  he  resembles  rather  the 
modern  religious  teacher.    His  ultimate  aim  was  to  influence 
conduct  and  life,  but  instead  of  appealing  directly  to  the  con- 
science, he  addressed  himself  primarily  to  the  mind  through 
counsel  and  argument,  hoping  that  his  appeal  to  the  com- 
mon sense  of  the  listener  would  make  an  impression,  the 


A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE  H 

effects  of  which  might  be  seen  in  transformed  conduct.  The 
prophet  would  have  said  to  the  lazy  man,  "Thus  saith  Je- 
hovah, Go  to  work,  thou  indolent  man."  Proverbs  24 : 30-34 
may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  method  of  the  Wise  Men: 

"I  went  by  the  field  of  the  slothful, 

And  by  the  vineyard  of  the  man  void  of  understanding; 
And  lo,  it  was  all  grown  over  with  thorns, 
The  face  thereof  was  covered  with  nettles, 
And  the  stone  wall  thereof  was  broken  down. 
Then  I  beheld,  and  considered  well : 
I  saw,  and  received  instruction. 
Yet  a  little  sleep,  a  little  slumber, 
A  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep : 
So  shall  thy  poverty  come  as  a  robber, 
And  thy  want  as  an  armed  man." 

Nothing  escaped  the  observation  of  these  men;  and  from 
beginning  to  end  they  emphasized  the  important  truth  that 
religion  and  the  daily  life  are  inseparable.  From  giving 
simple  practical  precepts  the  wise  men  rose  to  speculation, 
and  the  Books  of  Job  and  Ecclesiastes  bear  witness  that  the 
problems  they  attempted  to  solve  were  no  mean  problems. 

c.  The  Devotional  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.  In 
a  real  sense  the  entire  Old  Testament  is  a  book  of  devotion. 
It  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  spirit  of  intense  devotion  to  Je- 
hovah, and  it  has  helped  in  all  ages  to  nurture  the  devo- 
tional spirit  of  its  readers.  Here,  however,  the  term  devo- 
tional is  used  in  the  narrower  sense  of  those  poetic  compo- 
sitions which  are  primarily  the  expressions  of  the  religious 
experience  or  emotions  of  the  authors,  caused  and  fostered 
by  their  intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah.  The  chief  repre- 
sentative of  this  literature  is  the  Book  of  Psalms,  which  is 
aptly  described  by  Johannes  Arndt  in  these  words,  "What 
the  heart  is  in  man  that  is  the  Psalter  in  the  Bible."  The 
Psalms  contain,  in  the  form  of  sacred  lyrics,  the  outpour- 
ings of  devout  souls,  prophets,  priests,  kings,  wise  men,  and 
peasants,  who  came  into  the  very  presence  of  God,  held 


12  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

communion  with  Him,  and  were  privileged  to  hear  the  s>weet 
I  sound  of  His  voice.  No  other  literary  compositions  lift  us 
into  such  atmosphere  of  religious  thought  and  emotion.  And 
because  these  lyrics  express  personal  experiences,  they  may 
be  used  even  to-day  to  express  the  various  emotions  of  joy, 
sorrow,  hope,  fear,  anticipation,. and  others,  of  persons  who 
live  on  even  a  higher  plane  than  did  the  original  authors. 

d.  The  Legal  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.    The  Le- 
gal Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  differs  from  the  other 
kinds  in  that  it  does  not  form  separate  books,  but  is  em- 
bodied in  other  writings,  principally  in  the  books  of  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy.     All  the  representa- 
tives   of    Jehovah — prophets,    priests,    wise    men,    and    even 
psalmists — were  thought  competent  to  make  known  the  Law 
of  Jehovah,  but  the   Old  Testament  makes  it  clear  that  at 
a  comparatively   early   period   the   giving   of   the   law   came 
to  be  looked  upon  as  the  special  duty  of  the  priests.     These 
priests  constituted  a  very  important  class  of  religious  workers 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews.    During  the  greater  part  of  the 
national  life  of  Israel  their  chief  functions  were  the  care  of 
the  sanctuary  and  the  performance  of  the  ceremonial  rites, 
but  alongside  of  that  they  continued  to  administer  the  Law 
of  Jehovah,   consisting  not   only  of   ceremonial    regulations, 
but  also  of  moral  and  judicial  precepts  and  directions.     For 
centuries  these  laws  may  have  been  transmitted  by  word  of 
mouth,  or  were  only  partially  committed  to  writing,  but  when 
circumstances  made  it  desirable  to  codify  them  and  put  them 
in  writing,  the  priests   would  be   called   upon   to   take   this 
advance  step.     Thus,  while  it  is   quite  probable  that   other 

1  representatives  of  Jehovah  helped  to  formulate  laws,  the  legal 
literature  embodied  in  the  Old  Testament  reached  its  final 
form  under  priestly  influence. 

e.  The  Historical  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.    The 
historical  literature  of  the  Old  Testament  furnishes  an  inter- 
pretation of  the  movements  of  God  in  the  events  of  history. 


A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE  13 

It  owes  its  origin  in  part  to  prophetic,  in  part  to  priestly, 
activity.  The  prophet  was  _an  ambassador  of  Jehovah,  ap- 
pointed to  make  known  the  Divine  will  concerning^  the  past, 
"  'the  present,  and  trie  future.  Of  the  present  he  spoke  as  a 
preacher;  when  his  message  concerned  the  future,  it  took 
the  form  of  prediction.  But  the  case  might  arise  that  the 
people  failed  to  understand  the  significance  of  events  in  their 
own  history,  and  thus  failed  to  appreciate  the  lessons  which 
the  events  were  intended  to  teach.  If  the  lessons  were  not 
to  be  lost,  some  one  must  serve  as  an  interpreter;  and  who 
would  be  better  qualified  than  the  prophet  to  furnish  the 
right  interpretation?  This  demand  made  of  him,  in  a  sense, 
an  historian ;  not  for  the  purpose  of  merely  recording  events, 
but  of  interpreting  them  at  the  same  time;  and  these  pro- 
phetic interpretations  are  embodied  in  the  historical  litera- 
ture. But  not  all  Old  Testament  history  comes  from  the 
prophets.  As  already  indicated,  the  legal  and  ceremonial 
literature  is  due  to  priestly  activity.  Now,  in  connection 
with  the  recording  of  the  laws,  customs,  institutions,  and 
ceremonial  requirements,  the  origin  of  these  laws  and  cus- 
toms became  a  matter  of  interest  and  importance.  This 
interest,  and  the  demand  for  information  arising  from  it, 
led  the  priests  also  to  become  historians ;  and  to  these 
priestly  writers  we  are  indebted  for  not  a  small  part  of 
sacred  history. 

5.  Various  Kinds  of  New  Testament  Literature.  Several 
distinct  kinds  of  literature  may  be  recognized  in  the  New 
Testament.  All  its  writings  center  around  Jesus  the  Christ, 
and  in  one  way  or  another  seek  to  interpret  the  supreme 
revelation  of  God  in  and  through  Him.  Jesus  was  an, 
historical  person ;  His  life  and  activity  were  historical  events. 
It  is  but  natural,  therefore,  that  the  New  Testament  should 
contain  historical  writings,  namely,  the  Gospels,  whose  pri- 
mary purpose  is  to  record  and  interpret  the  life  and  activity 
of  Jesus.  The  work  of  establishing  the  kingdom  of  God 
upon  earth,  begun  by  Jesus,  was  continued  by  His  disciples. 


J4  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

and  assumed  organized  form  in  the  formation  of  Churches. 
The  progress  of  these  events  is  recorded  in  another  histor- 
ical book,  entitled  The  Acts. 

Every  new  movement  gives  rise  to  problems  and  per- 
plexities. Christianity  was  no  exception.  Very  soon  per- 
plexing questions  began  to  disturb  the  newly  organized 
Churches.  Individuals  failed  to  grasp  the  true  significance 
of  the  new  teaching;  corruption  and  schisms  threatened  to 
disrupt  the  believers.  In  these  extremities  the  leaders  in  the 
new  faith  were  appealed  to  for  guidance  and  inspiration. 
Since  they  could  not  visit  all  the  places  where  Christians 
sought  their  counsel,  they  sometimes  sent  their  advice  in  the 
form  of  letters,  which  practice  has  given  rise  to  the  ex- 
tensive epistolary  literature  in  the  New  Testament.  The 
closing  book,  Revelation,  is  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in  the 
New  Testament  Canon.  It  has  its  counterparts  in  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  Book  of  Daniel,  and  portions  of  the  Books 
of  Ezekiel  and  ZecharSah.  It  belongs  to  what  is  commonly 
called  apocalyptic  literature,  the  latest  form  of  prophetic 
writing.  Revelation  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  early  Christian 
persecutions,  and  its  aim  is  to  encourage  the  distressed  Chris- 
tians by  the  assurance  of  the  ultimate  triumph  of  the  king- 
dom of  God. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  Bible  a  collection  of  books. 

Contents  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Contents  of  the  New  Testament. 

Different  kinds  of  Old  Testament  literature. 

Different  kinds  of  New  Testament  literature. 


Bibliography : 

Kirkpatrick,  "The  Divine  Library  of  the  Old  Testament." 
Kent,  "The  Origin  and  Permanent  Value  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment." 


A  BODY  OF  LITERATURE  15 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Wisdom  literature  in  the  Old  Testament  in  other  than  dis- 

tinctively Wisdom  Books. 

2.  The  earliest  psalms,  or  songs,  of  the  Old  Testament. 

3.  The  forms  of  literature  in  the  Old  Testament  in  detail. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  are  the  groups  of  Old  Testament  books? 

2.  Discuss  the  various  functions  of  the  prophet. 

3.  In  what  various  ways  has  God  made  Himself  known  to 


man 


4.  The  kinds  of  literature  in  the  Old  Testament,  with 
amples. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  BIBLE— RECORDS  OF  DIVINE 
REVELATION 

1.  The  New  Testament  Estimate  of  the  Bible.  From  the 
rery  beginning  until  now  the  Christian  Church  has  looked 
upon  the  Bible  as  one  of  the  most  useful  means  ,to  promote 
intelligent  and  vital  piety,  .to  intensify  spiritual  life  and  ex- 
penence,"  to  instruct  in  Christian  activity  and  service.  This 
conviction,  as  far  as  the  Old  Testament  is  concerned,  finds 
expression  in  unambiguous  language  in  2  Tim.  3:  15-1?  •  "The 
sacred  writings  are  able  to  make  wise  unto  salvation  through 
faith  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus.  Every  Scripture  inspired 
of  God  is  also  profitable  for  teaching,  for  reproof,  for  cor- 
rection, for  instruction  which  is  in  righteousness,  that  the 
man  of  God  may  be  complete,  furnished  completely  unto 
every  good  work."  What  is  said  here  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  equally  true  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament.  In 
the  words  of  Cyprian,  one  of  the  early  Church  fathers,  "The 
more  closely  one  scrutinizes  the  sacred  Scriptures  of  both 
Testaments,  the  greater  increase  in  faith  and  inward  devo- 
tion will  he  derive  therefrom."  Since  these  words  were 
spoken,  thousands  of  the  most  eminent  men  and  women  in 
all  conditions  of  life  and  society  have  testified  to  the  ines- 
timable value  qf  the  Bible  as 'a  means  of  grace  to  the  in- 
dividual, ana  ah  essential  factor  in  all  advancement  of  true 
•civilization. 

What  gives  to  the  Bible  this  unique  power?  The  answer 
to  this  inquiry  is  implied  in  the  above  quoted  words  of  the 

16 


RECORDS  OF  DIVINE  REVELATION  17 

apostle,  "Evenr  scripture  inspired  of  God."  The  presence 
of  divine  inspiration  is  the  secret  of  the  Bible's  power. 
That  such  a  divine  element  was  present  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament was  recognized  by  Jesus  and  all  New  Testament 
writers.  And  surely  it  is  a  significant  fact  that 'in  the  first 
outburst  of  Christian  enthusiasm,  and\mder  the  living  im- 
pression of  the  unique  personality  of  the  Master,  no  doubt 
arose  concerning  the  inspiration  and  permanent  value  of  the 
Old  Testament..  In  2  Peter  1 : 21  the  unqualified  assertion  is 
made  that  "no  prophecy  ever  came  by  the  will  of  man,  but 
men  spake  from  God  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost." 
And  the  first  great  apologist  of  Christianity  opens  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  with  these  significant  words,  "God  having 
of  old  time  spoken  unto  the  fathers  in  the  prophets  by  divers 
portions,  and  in  divers  manners  hath  in  the  end  of  these  days 
spoken  unto  us  in  a  Son."  If  such  assertion  can  be  made 
of  the  Old  Testament,  how  much  more  of  the  New,  with 
its  superior  spiritual  and' ethical  teaching! 

To  avoid  misunderstanding  it  may  be  well  to  bear  in 
mind  in  the  very  beginning  what  the  New  Testament  says 
or  implies  concerning  the  purpose  and  aim  of  Biblical  teach- 
ing. For  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  remember  that 
we  can  learn  what  the  Bible  is  only  from  what  the  Bible 
itself  says.  Now,  everywhere  in  the  New  Testament  it  is 
stated  or  clearly  implied  that  the  purpose  of  Scripture  is  to 
point  to  the  Christ,  to  bring  man  into  harmony  with  God,  to 
make  him  morally  and  spiritually  perfect,  and  to  furnish 
him  "unto  every  good  work."  Xot  one  passage  in  the  whole 
Bible  warrants  the  belief  that  the  Biblical  writers  ever  in- 
tended to  teach  physical  science,  or  history,  or  "philosophy, 
or  psychology.  Therefore  we  may  expect  that  where  the 
Biblical  writers  touch  upon  questions  of  science  or  history 
they  develop  them  only  to  the  extent  that  they  serve  the 
higher  religious  or  ethical  purpose.  For  this,  absolute  scien- 
tific or  historical  accuracy  in  every  detail  is  by  no  means 
necessary. 


1$  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

2.  Truths   Suggested   in  Hebrews   1:1,   2.     The   words 
quoted  from  the  Epistle  to  the   Hebrews   suggest   or  imply 
five  great  truths  which  have  an  important  bearing  upon  the 
present  inquiry:    (i)    God   spoke.      (2)    God   spoke    through 
human  agents.     (3)  God  spoke  in  divers  portions.     (4)  God 
spoke  in  divers  manners.     (5)   The  speaking  during  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation — to  it  refers  the  expression  "of  old 
time" — was  incomplete;  it  had  to  be  supplemented  and  per- 
fected by  a  revelation  in  and  through  a  Son.     In  order  to 
appreciate  properly  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the  Scriptures, 
all  these  truths  must  be  borne  in  mind.     It  is  especially  im- 
portant to   remember  that   God  used  human  agents   in  the 
attempt  to  make  Himself  known  to  men,  and  these  agents 
left  the  marks  of  their  human  limitations  in  the   records. 
But  it  is  equally  essential  to  remember  that  it  is  God  who 
spoke;  in  other  words,  that  there  is  a  divine  element  in  the 
Bible. 

3.  Evidences  of  the  Presence  of  a  Divine  Element.     Noth- 
ing can  be  gained  by  denying  the  presence  of  a  human  ele- 
ment in  the  Bible.     At  the  same  time  it  should  not  be  over- 
estimated, or  blind  the  eyes  to  the  other  truth  expressed  by 
the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  that  there  is  also 
a  divine  element  in  the  writings  of  the  Bible.     As   far  as 
the  Old  Testament  is  concerned  this  was  recognized  by  Jesus 
and  all  the  New  Testament  writers.    Their  testimony  should 
carry  great  weight  with   Christians.     But  without  appealing 
to  such  authority,  every  unbiased  reader  may  convince  him- 
self of  the  nature  and  character  of  the  book.    It  is  ready  for 
examination  and  invites  the  closest  scrutiny  on  the  part  of 
every  student. 

Former  generations  based  the  principal  arguments  in  favor 
of  the  belief  in  a  divine  element  in  the  Bible  upon  the  pres- 
ence of  miracles  in  its  records,  and  the  fulfillment  of 
prophecy.  The  present  generation,  while  still  using  these 
arguments,  places  greater  stress  upon  evidences  which  are 
simpler  and  more  easily  apprehended.  Three  of  the  most 


RECORDS  OF  DIVINE  REVELATION  19 

important  may  be  considered  here:  (i)  The  essential  unity 
of  the  book ;  (2)  the  response  of  the  human  heart  and  con- 
science to  its  message,  and  the  effects  it  produces  in  the 
lives  of  those  who  yield  themselves  to  its  teaching ;  (3)  the 
uniqueness  of  the  Bible  as  seen  when  it  is  compared  with 
other  sacred  literatures  of  antiquity. 

a.  The  Essential  Unity  of  the  Bible.     In  the  first  place, 
then,  attention  may  be  called  to  the   essential  unity  of  the 
Bible.     There  are  in  the  Old  World  great  and  magnificent 
cathedrals,  some  of  which  have  been  centuries  in  building, 
yet  in   all  of  them  is   complete   unity  and   harmony.      How 
can  this   be   explained?     Although   generation   after   genera- 
tion multitudes  of  workmen  have  labored  on  the  enterprise, 
back  of  all  the  efforts  was  one  single  plan,  evolved  in  the 
mind  of  one  man,  and  this  mind  controlled  all  the  succeed- 
ing generations  of  workmen.     The  result  is  unity  and  har- 
mony.    The  Bible  has  been  likened  to  a  magnificent  cathe- 
dral.    The   phenomenon   to   which   reference   has   just   been 
made  in  connection  with  ancient  cathedrals  may  be  seen  in 
it.     It  contains   sixty-six  books — by  how   many   authors   no 
one  knows — scattered  over  a  period  of  more  than  a  thou- 
sand years,  written,  at  least  many  of  them,  independent  of 
one   another,    in   places    hundreds    of   miles    apart ;    yet    one 
thought  running  throughout  them  all,  the  gradual  unfolding 
of  God's  plan  of  redemption  for  the  human  race.    There  must 
be  an  explanation  for  this  unity;  and  I  believe  that  it  is  to 
be  found  in  the  one  spirit  which  dwelt  in  and  somehow  in- 
fluenced the  men  who  made  contributions  to  the  Book. 

b.  The  Response  of  the  Human  Heart  and  Conscience  to 
the  Bible  Message.     The  proof  of  the  presence  of  a  divine 
element  in  the  Bible  which  is  derived  from  the  essential  unity 
of  the  Book  is  confirmed  by  the  response  of  the  human  heart 
and  conscience  to  its  message,  and  the  effects  which  it  pro- 
duces in  the  lives  of  those  who  yield  themselves  to  its  teach- 
ing.   Never  has  there  been  a  book  that  has  been  able  to  "find" 


20  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

men  as  the  Bible  has  done  generation  after  generation,  among 
peoples  in  all  stations  of  society,  in  all  lands  and  climes.  The 
bearing  of  this  remarkable  fact  upon  the  question  of  the  di- 
vine inspiration  of  the  Bible  is  stated  very  aptly  by  Coleridge 
in  his  Letters  on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures:  "Need 
I  say  that  I  have  found  everywhere  more  or  less  copious 
sources  of  truth,  and  power,  and  purifying  impulses;  that  I 
have  found  words  for  my  inmost  thoughts,  songs  for  my  joy, 
utterances  for  my  hidden  griefs,  and  pleadings  for  my  shame 
and  feebleness?  In  short,  whatever  'finds'  me  bears  witness 
for  itself  that  it  has  proceeded  from  a  Holy  Spirit,  even 
from  the  same  Spirit  which,  remaining  it  itself,  yet  regen- 
erateth  all  other  powers,  and  in  all  ages  entering  into  holy 
souls  maketh  them  friends  of  God  and  prophets." 

The  test  "By  their  fruits  ye  shall  know  them"  leads  to 
the  same  result.  No  other  book  has  produced  such  far-reach- 
ing results.  Sinful  and  sorrowing  men  have  come  to  the 
Bible  and  have  found  the  way  of  forgiveness  and  peace. 
They  have  been  transformed  from  old  evil  lives  of  wicked- 
ness and  vice  to  new  and  beautiful  lives  of  righteousness. 
But  the  fruits  are  seen  not  only  in  the  lives  of  individuals, 
but  of  entire  nations.  The  nations  enjoying  the  highest  and 
most  advanced  civilization  are  the  nations  with  an  open  Bible. 
Froude,  the  historian,  declares,  "All  that  we  have  in  the 
way  of  civilization  in  a  sense  which  deserves  the  term  is 
but  a  visible  expression  of  the  transforming  influence  of  the 
gospel."  So  also  Daniel  Webster,  "If  we  abide  by  the  prin- 
ciples taught  in  the  Bible,  our  country  will  go  on  prospering 
and  to  prosper;  but  if  we  and  our  posterity  neglect  its  in- 
struction and  authority,  no  man  can  tell  how  sudden  a  ca- 
tastrophe may  overwhelm  us  and  bury  our  glory  in  profound 
obscurity."  True,  there  are  dark  spots  on  modern  civiliza- 
tion even  in  Christian  lands,  but  these  could  not  continue  to 
exist  for  a  day  were  the  Bible  teaching  applied  consistently 
to  all  the  details  of  individual,  social,  and  national  life.  But 
a  book  which  produces  such  divine  results  bears  witness  to 


RECORDS  OF  DIVIXE  REVELATION  21 

itself  that  it  embodies  truth  which,  in  some  real  sense,  pro 
ceeded  from  God.     As  long  as  the  Bible  awakens  this   re-  •' 
sponse  and  produces  these  effects,  men  will  believe  that  it  j 
contains    a    divine    element.      And    it    will    accomplish    these  ' 
things  wherever  and  whenever  men  are  willing  to  study  it 
intelligently    and    devoutly,    and    to    yield    themselves    to    its 
teaching  as  it  appeals  to  their  own  best  selves.     What  the 
Bible   calls    for   is   not   a   defense,   but   earnest   and   devout 
study. 

c.  The  Uniqueness  of  the  Bible.  The  value  and  signifi- 
cance of  the  facts  mentioned  can  not  easily  be  overestimated. 
But  during  the  past  century  other  proofs  have  become  avail- 
able, as  a  result  of  the  careful  and  painstaking  study  of  the 
Bible  by  scholars  in  many  lands  and  from  various  points  of 
view.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  study  four  tests  have  been  ap- 
plied to  the  Bible:  the  test  of  criticism,  of  archaeology,  of 
comparative  religion,  and  of  science.  As  a  result  the  origin 
and  literary  form  of  the  Biblical  books  have  come  to  be  bet- 
ter understood,  and  while  certain  previously  held  ideas  have 
had  to  be  modified,  the  peculiar  uniqueness  of  the  Bible,  when 
compared  with  other  sacred  literatures  of  antiquity,  has  been 
revealed  as  never  before.  This  uniqueness  consists  princi- 
pally in  the  pure  and  lofty  atmosphere  which  permeates  the 
whole  from  beginning  to  end.  One  may  read  its  stories  of 
prehistoric  times,  its  records  of  history  both  in  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testament,  its  law,  its  poetry,  its  prophecy,  or  its 
doctrinal  writings,  and  everywhere  he  will  find  an  intensity 
and  purity  of  religious  tone  and  spirit  which  is  absent  from 
similar  literatures  of  other  nations  and  bears  witness  to  the 
presence  of  God  in  a  manner  in  which  He  can  not  be  rec- 
ognized in  other  literatures. 

Lesson  Outline: 

New  Testament  estimate  of  the  Bible. 

The  presence  of  a  human  element  in  the  Bible. 

Evidences  of  a  Divine  element. 


22  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Bibliography  : 

Sanday,  "The  Oracles  of  God." 
Dods,  "The  Bible,  Its  Origin  and  Nature." 
Farrar,  "The  Bible,  Its  Meaning  and  Supremacy." 
Smyth,  "How  God  Inspired  the  Bible." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  kind  and  degree  of  inspiration  which  the  Scriptures 

claim  for  themselves. 

2.  The  New  Testament  estimate  of  the  Old,  in  detail. 

3.  The  unique  qualities  of  the  Bible  as  compared  with  other 

sacred  literatures  of  antiquity. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  The  explanation  of  the  unique  power  of  the  Bible  es  a 

means  of  grace. 

2.  The  supreme  purpose  of  inspiration. 

3.  Discuss  the  response  of  the  human  heart  and  conscience 

to  the  message  of  the  Bible. 

4.  The  effect  of  the  Bible  upon  the  life  of  nations. 

5.  Other  evidences  of  divine  quality  in  the  Scriptures. 


CHAPTER  III 
HOW  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE 

1.  The  Canon  of  Scripture.     In  referring  to  the  two  col- 
lections of  Biblical  books  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  the  Old 
Testament  Canon  and  the  New  Testament  Canon.    The  word 
Canon,  which  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  means  primarily  a 
straight  rod,  a  measuring  rod.    From  this  it  derives  the  sec- 
ondary meaning,  line,  rule,  and  even  law.     The  meaning  list 
or  catalogue  marks  a  still  later  development.    The  name  was 
applied  to  the  books  of  the  Bible   first   in  the   second  half 
of  the   fourth   century  A.   D.,  but  the   idea   underlying  the 
adoption  of  the  term  was  recognized  much  earlier.     It  was 
believed  that  the  books  set  apart  into  the  Canon  were  given 
by  inspiration,  that  in  some  way  God  spoke  in  and  through 
them.     The  Canon  of  Scripture,  therefore,  may  be  defined 
as  a  collection  of  books  given  by  inspiration  of  God,  through 
which  the  Divine  Spirit  may  appeal  to  the  human  heart  and 
conscience. 

2.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon. 
The   Old   Testament   Canon   was   formed   among  the  Jews, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  over  by  the  early  Christians.     The 
exact  steps  by  which  the  Jewish  Canon  grew  into  its  final 
form  it   may  not  be  possible  to   determine;   but  it   is   now 
quite  generally  admitted  that  the  three-fold  division  of  the 
Jewish  Canon  into  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Writings 
marks   three   stages   in   the   growth   of  the   Old   Testament 
Canon.     The  available  evidence,  which  is  none  too  definite, 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  Law  was  accepted  as  canon- 


24  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

ical  as  early  as  400  B-  C.;  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  at 
least  some  of  the  Writings,  about  180  B.  C;  practically  all 
the  Old  Testament  books  were  accepted  as  canonical  by 
the  opening  of  the  Christian  era.  The  setting  apart  ^of 
these  books  was  not  an  arbitrary  act.  The  Spirit  who  in- 
spired the  writer  appealed  to  the  reader  through  the  writing, 
and  if  a  writing  thus  appealed  as  sacred  to  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  people,  it  retained  that  position  until  official  action 
could  put  its  seal  upon  its  sanctity.  The  final  official  decision 
was  rendered  at  the  Jewish  Council  at  Jamnia,  about  90  A.  D. 
Questions  of  canonicity  raised  at  a  later  time  were  settled 
by  appeal  to  the  action  of  this  council. 

3.  The  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  New  Testament  Canon. 
In  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament  the  action  of  the  Council 
of  Jamnia  appears  to  have  been  accepted  as  binding  by  prac- 
tically the  entire  Jewish  world.  No  such  general  action  was 
taken  with  reference  to  the  New  Testament  books  until  the 
sixteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  Local  councils  dealt 
with  the  question,  but  their  decisions  were  not  universally 
binding.  A  canon  attributed  to  the  Council  of  Laodicea 
(about  360  A.  D.),  representing  the  Eastern  Church,  con- 
tains all  the  New  Testament  books  except  Revelation.  The 
Third  Council  of  Carthage  (397  A.  D.),  representing  the 
Western  Church,  ordered  that  "besides  the  Canonical  Scrip- 
tures nothing  be  read  in  the  Church  under  the  title  of  Divine 
Scriptures."  The  list  of  canonical  books  given  contained  all 
our  New  Testament  books.  Though  the  action  of  this  coun- 
cil may  not  have  been  immediately  accepted  as  binding  by 
the  whole  Church,  there  can  be  no  question  that  ultimately 
its  decision  came  to  be  recognized  as  authoritative.  The  prin- 
ciple underlying  the  formation  of  the  New  Testament  Canon 
is,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  fact  of  inspira- 
tion. The  actual  process  of  formation  is  described  by  Adeney 
in  these  words :  "Primarily  the  question  was  as  to  what 
books  were  read  in  the  churches  at  public  worship.  Those 
so  used  became  in  course  of  time  the  Christian  Scriptures. 


HOW  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE  25 

Then,  having  the  value  of  Scripture  gradually  associated 
with  them,  they  came  to  be  employed  as  the  basis  of  instruc- 
tion, and -to  be  appealed  to  in  disputed  cases  of  doctrine  or 
discipline." 

4.  The  Transmission  of  the  Old  Testament.      The   Old 
Testament  books,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  portions 
(two  words  in  Gen.  31:47;   Jer.   10:11;   Dan.  2:4 — 7:28; 
Ezra    4:8 — 6:18;    7:12-26),    which   are    in    Aramaic,    were 
written  in  the  Hebrew  language.     Whether  any  of  the  books 
were  ever  inscribed  on  tablets  is   uncertain,  but   from  very 
early  times  to  the  invention  of  printing  they  were  handed 
down  in  the  form  of  manuscripts  written  on  leather,  parch- 
ment,  papyrus,   and   later   also    on   paper.     Until    about   the 
fifth  century  A.  D.  the  manuscripts  contained  only  the  con- 
sonants, but  when  Hebrew  became  more  and  more  a  dead 
language  the   Jewish   scribes   invented   a   system   of  vowels, 
which  were  introduced  into  the  later  manuscripts   intended 
for   popular    use ;    the    Synagogue    rolls    continuing    without 
vowel    points.      The    Hebrew    manuscripts    now    known    are 
few,  and  they  are  of  comparatively  late  date.     Leaving  aside 
some  whose  dates  are  somewhat  uncertain,  the  oldest   He- 
brew manuscript   of  the   prophets   comes    from  916   A.    D. ; 
the  oldest  Hebrew  manuscript  of  the  whole  Old  Testament 
from    1010   A.    D.     The   first    portion    of   the    Hebrew    Old 
Testament  to  be  printed  was  the  Psalter,  in  1477  A.  D. ;  the 
whole  Old  Testament  was  printed  in   1488  A.  D. 

5.  The  Transmission  of  the  New  Testament.      The  New 
Testament  books  were  written  in  Greek,  though  some  por- 
tions  of  the  Gospels   may  have  been  translated   from   Ara- 
maic  or    Hebrew    sources.     Like   the    Old    Testament   writ- 
ings, .they  were  handed  down  for  centuries  in  the  form  of 
manuscripts.  JThe  autographs  have  all  perished,  and  the  vast 
majority  of  existing  manuscripts  are  of  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern  date.     The  most  important  of  the   ancient   manuscript?, 
now  known  are  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  dating  from  the  fourt 
century,  which  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Library  in  Rome: 


26  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

*  the  Codex  Sinaiticus,  which  was  discovered  in  the  Convent 
of  St.  Catherine  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai,  also  of  the 
fourth  century,  now  in  the  Imperial  Library  in  St.  Peters- 

'  burg.  A  third  manuscript  is  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  of 
the  fifth  century,  in  the  British  Museum.  These  three  manu- 
scripts each  include  the  Old  Testament  in  whole  or  in  part. 
In  addition  there  are  about  one  hundred  other  ancient  manu- 
scripts. The  first  New  Testament  in  Greek  was  given  to  the 
world  in  printed  form  in  1516  by  the  Dutch  scholar,  Erasmus. 
Since  then  numerous  other  editions  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment have  been  prepared  until  we  are  in  possession  of  a  Greek 
text  which  in  all  essentials  may  be  considered  an  accurate  repro- 
duction of  the  autographs. 

6.  Early  Translations  of  the  Bible.  Translations  of  the 
Old  Testament  were  made  even  before  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  era.  This  was  due  to  two  facts.  In  the  first 
place,  the  Jews  were  scattered  all  over  the  Eastern  world, 
and  began  to  adopt  the  languages  of  the  people  among  whom 
they  lived.  In  the  second  place,  even  in  Palestine  the  Ara- 
maic language  displaced  the  Hebrew.  At  a  later  time,  when 
Christianity,  with  its  emphasis  on  the  Old  Testament,  spread 
to  different  nations,  the  demand  for  translations  became  even 
more  urgent.  As  the  Christians  multiplied  it  became  neces- 
sary to  translate  also  the  New  Testament. 

a.  Early  Translations.  The  most  important  early  transla- 
tions are:  (i)  The  Septuagint,  the  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  into  Greek,  begun  about  250  B.  C.  (2)  The  Tar- 
gums  ;  that  is,  translations  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Ara- 
maic for  the  use  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine.  The  earliest  layers 
of  the  Targums  antedate  the  birth  of  Christ,  but  in  their 
...  completed  form  they  are  post-Christian.  (3)  The  Peshitto, 
a  translation  into  Syriac,  made  for  the  most  part  in  the  sec- 
ond century  A.  D.  for  the  use  of  the  Syrian  Christians. 
(4)  The  Vulgate,  a  Latin  translation  made  by  Jerome  in 
390-405  to  take  the  place  of  the  earlier  Latin  translation  made 


HOW  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE  2} 

from  the  Septuagint  probably  in  the  second  century  A.  D. 
The  last  two  translations  include  also  the  New  Testament. 

b.  Early  Anglo-Saxon  and  English  Translations.  When 
Augustine,  the  Roman-Catholic  monk,  went  as  a  missionary 
to  England  in  596,  the  pope  sent  him  a  Bible,  the  Psalter, 
the  Gospels,  and  several  other  books  of  a  religious  character. 
The  Bible  was  the  Vulgate,  and  this  Latin  text  was  used  in 
the  first  efforts  to  produce  the  Anglo-Saxon  translations, 
which  are  the  ancestors  of  our  modern  English  Bible.  Of 
these  early  attempts  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  The 
translation  of  Caedmon,  a  monk  of  Whitby,  in  Northumbria 
(died  in  680).  His  work  is  less  a  translation  than  a  metrical 
paraphrase  of  the  Book  of  Genesis  and  of  several  historical 
portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  About  the  close 
of  the  seventh  century  Guthlac  of  Croyland  prepared  an  in- 
terlinear translation  of  the  Psalms;  a  little  later  Aldhelm, 
Bishop  of  Sherborne,  translated  the  Psalms,  the  first  fifty  in 
prose,  the  rest  in  poetical  form.  Bede,  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian (674-735),  is  credited  with  a  translation  of  the  entire 
Bible,  but  nothing  is  known  of  such  work.  More  credit  may 
be  given  to  the  tradition  that  he  translated  the  Gospel  of 
John.  King  Alfred  (died  in  901)  is  said  to  have  translated 
some  portions.  Passing  over  several  others,  mention  may 
be  made  of  the  last  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  exten- 
sive Anglo-Saxon  translation,  which  is  ascribed  to  Aelfric; 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  about  990  A.  D.  ^All  these  efforts 
were  crude  and  fragmentary.  The  early  authors  translated 
Only  small  portions  of  the  Bible;  but  we  find  in  the  later 
attempts  a  degree  of  fidelity  to  the  original  and  a  literary 
finish,  which  entitle  them  to  great  respect. 

With  the  advent  of  William  the  Conqueror  (1071),  Eng- 
land was  wholly  transformed.  The  government  was  con- 
centrated in  one  person,  new  elements  of  social  life  were 
introduced,  commerce  was  wonderfully  developed,  and  the 
intellectual  life  greatly  quickened.  Not  the  least  of  the 
transformations  was  that  of  the  language.  The  change  iii 


28  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

language  made  it  necessary  to  prepare  a  new  translation  of 
the  Scriptures.  For  more  than  a  century  there  existed  _great 
political  confusion,  which  checked  literary  development;  but 
early  in  the  thirteenth  century  we  find  a  metrical  paraphrase 
of  those  parts  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  which  were  read  in 
the  church  services.  The  next  century,  and  a  half  saw  several 
other  attempts  at  partial  translations,  but  finally  the  time 
arrived  when  the  people  of  England  demanded  the  whole 
Bible  in  a  more  careful  translation.  In  response  to  this  de- 
mand came  the  great  work  of  John  Wycliffe,  which  forms 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  landmarks  in  the  history  of  the 
English  Bible.  The  New  Testament  appeared  first,  about 
1380;  in  1382,  or  soon  afterward,  certainly  before  the  death 
of  Wycliffe  in  1384,  the  entire  Bible  was  completed  in  its 
English  dress.  Like  its  forerunners,  this  translation  was 
made  from  the  Latin.  Of  the  precise  share  of  Wycliffe  in 
the  production  of  the  translation  it  is  not  possible  to  speak 
with  absolute  certainty.  That  he  did  much  of  the  work  him- 
self, and  was  the  inspiration  of  the  whole  movement,  can 
not  be  doubted. 

c.  The  Translations  of  the  Period  of  the  Reformation. 
The  Reformation  gave  new  life  to  the  movement  toward 
popularizing  the  Bible.  The  reformers  believed  that  the  best 
/nethod  of  overthrowing  the  power  of  the  monasteries  and 
of  the  Roman  Church  was  to  enable  the  common  people  to 
read  the  Bible  for  themselves  and  learn  how  much  of  the 
current  teaching  of  priests  and  friars  was  without  Scriptural 
basis.  Hence  it  came  to  pass  that  the  question  of  Bible  trans- 
lations into  the  vernacular  of  the  people  occupied  a  prominent 
place  in  the  struggles  of  the  Reformation.  In  Germany  the 
popular  translation  was  made  once  for  all  by  Luther,  but  in 
England,  where  parties  were  more  divided,  the  ultimate  ac- 
complishment required  many  years  and  the  co-operation  of 
many  men. 

The  true  father  of  the  English  Bible  is  Tyndale,  a  Fran- 
ciscan priest.  While  studying  at  Cambridge  he  came  :'n  con- 


HOW  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE  29 

tact  with  the  New  Testament  of  Erasmus.  In  a  quiet  way 
he  began  to  expound  the  Scriptures,  and  his  experience  soon 
convinced  him  that  nothing  could  be  accomplished  in  the  way 
of  the  spiritual  elevation  of  the  people  unless  the  Bible  could 
be  laid  before  them  in  their  mother  tongue.  After  many  hard- 
ships and  perils  he  finally  succeeded  in  publishing,  at  Worms, 
in  Germany,  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  in  1525. 
In  the  following  years  he  translated  various  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament,  but  when  he  was  strangled  and  burned  at 
the  stake  in  1536  the  larger  enterprise  was  still  incomplete. 
Near  the  time  of  Tyndale's  death  the  obstacles  to  printing  the 
Bible  in  England  were  removed,  and  now  an  era  of  great 
^activity  in  Bible  translations  opened.  Between  1535  and 
1606  no  less  than  six  different  translations  were  issued,  each 
having  its  characteristic  value  and  marking  an  advance  over 
its  predecessors. 

Of  these  the  translation  of  Myles  Coverdale,  published 
in  1535,  stands  first.  To  him  belongs  the  honor  of  issuing 
the  first  complete  printed  English  Bible.  The  Wycliffe  Bible 
contained  a  translation  of  the  entire  Bible,  but  it  was  not 
printed.  Tyndale  issued  in  printed  form  the  New  Testament 
and  parts  of  the  Old,  but  did  not  live  to  see  the  work  com- 
pleted. The  work  of  Coverdale  does  not  profess  to  be  made 
from  the  original  languages ;  it  is  based  rather  upon  the 
Vulgate,  and  the  translations  of  Luther  and  Tyndale.  Two 
years  later,  in  1537,  appeared  a  new  translation,  which  goes 
under  the  name  of  Thomas  Matthew,  but  the  real  author  was 
in  all  probability  John  Rogers,  an  intimate  friend  of  Tyndale, 
to  whom  the  latter  had  entrusted  his  papers  at  the  time  of 
his  arrest.  In  1539  Richard  Taverner  edited  a  Bible  consist- 
ing largely  of  a  revision  of  that  of  Matthew,  omitting  most 
of  his  notes  and  introducing  much  new  introductory  ma- 
terial. Taverner  was  one  of  the  great  Greek  scholars  of  the 
age,  and  made  good  use  of  his  knowledge  in  the  translation 
of  the  New  Testament ;  in  the  Old  Testament  he  leans 
strongly  on  the  Vulgate.  Neither  the  Church  nor  the  State 


3o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

could  become  reconciled  to  the  existing  translations,  although 
\hey  had  at  last  sanctioned  their  publication.  A  new  trans- 
lation was  therefore  prepared  under  their  own  supervision 
and  published  in  1539,  Thomas  Cromwell  being  the  leading 
spirit  in  the  movement.  Because  of  the  size  of  its  pages  it 
is  known  as  the  "Great  Bible,"  or  also  "Cranmer's  Bible," 
because  Archbishop  Cranmer  prepared  an  elaborate  prologue 
for  the  second  edition,  which  appeared  in  1540.  During  the 
later  years  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  especially  under 
Queen  Mary,  a  strong  reaction  toward  Catholicism  set  in, 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  was  forbidden,  and  the  attempt  was 
made  to  destroy  all  existing  copies.  Learned  men  of  Prot- 
estant tendencies  were  compelled  to  flee  from  England.  Of 
these  religious  exiles  a  company  of  several  hundred  gathered 
at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland.  Among  the  most  prominent  men 
of  the  English  colony  were  William  Whittingham  and  Myles 
Coverdale.  They  determined  to  prepare  an  English  Bible  of 
moderate  size  and  cost,  more  accurate  in  its  renderings,  and 
accompanied  with  a  brief  commentary  and  such  explanatory 
statements  as  were  needed  for  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
text.  The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1557,  the  entire  Bible 
in  1560.  This  Bible,  called  the  Geneva  Bible,  at  once  obtained 
a  very  wide  circulation.  From  1560  to  1616  not  a  year  passed 
without  one  or  more  new  editions. 

The  circulation  of  the  English  Bible  was  now  confined 
to  the  two  editions  known  as  the  Great  Bible  and  the 
Geneva  Bible.  Neither  proved  entirely  satisfactory;  the  Ge- 
neva Bible  was  too  Calvinistic  and  anti-episcopal;  the  Great 
Bible  showed  many  defects  in  translation.  This  led  to  the 
preparation  of  a  new  translation,  called  the  "Bishops'  Bible," 
oecause  three-fourths  of  the  translators  were  bishops.  The 
first  edition  appeared  in  1568.  Strenuous  efforts  were  made 
to  have  it  take  the  place  of  all  earlier  translations,  but  while 
it  became  the  official  Bible  of  the  Church,  the  Geneva  Bible 
remained  the  Bible  of  the  home. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  zeal  o£  the 


3' 

Protestant  Churches  drove  the  Roman  Church  into  competi- 
tion with  them  in  the  production  of  Bible  translations.  The 
preparation  of  an  English  translation  naturally  fell  to  the 
scholars  of  the  English  seminary  which  had  lately  been  es- 
tablished in  France.  The  original  home  of  the  seminary  was 
at  Douay,  but  in  1578  it  was  transferred  for  a  time  to  Rheims, 
as  a  result  of  political  disturbances  in  Flanders.  Here  the 
New  Testament  was  published  in  1582.  The  Old  Testament 
did  not  appear  until  1609,  when  the  seminary  had  returned 
to  Douay.  As  a  result  the  completed  Bible  goes  by  the 
name  of  the  "Rheims  and  Douay"  Bible.  The  most  impor- 
tant point  to  be  observed  about  this  Roman-Catholic  trans- 
lation is  that  it  was  not  made  from  the  original  Hebrew 
and  Greek,  but  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  circulation  of 
the  Rheims  and  Douay  version  was  not  large ;  the  New  Tes- 
tament was  reprinted  three  times  between  1582  and  1750,  the 
Old  Testament  only  once. 

d.  The  Authorized  Version.  The  Bishops'  Bible  did  not 
meet  with  popular  favor,  and  soon  the  demand  for  a  new 
translation  was  heard.  When  James  I  became  king  of  Eng- 
land in  1603  he  found  the  country  in  great  turmoil,  the  Puri- 
tans and  the  Church  of  England  parties  being  engaged  in  a 
bitter  contest  for  supremacy.  At  a  conference  held  in  Jan- 
uary, 1604,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  the  grievances,  the 
subject  of  a  new  Bible  translation  was  raised,  and  all  agreed 
that  such  a  work  should  be  undertaken.  The  king  chose 
fifty-four  translators,  who  devoted  seven  years  to  the  task, 
and  in  1611  the  new  translation  was  published.  It  can  not 
be  shown  that  the  new  translation  ever  had  any  authority 
given  to  it,  although  on  the  title-page  appears  the  statement 
"appointed  to  be  read  in  churches."  It  had  to  make  its  way 
on  its  own  merits,  and  for  a  generation  had  a  formidable 
rival  in  the  Geneva  Bible,  which  continued  to  be  the  popular 
favorite;  but  in  the  end  its  sterling  value  gave  it  the  su- 
premacy, which  it  has  retained  ever  since.  According  to  the 
instruction  given  to  the  translators,  they  were  to  follow  the 


32  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Bishops'  Bible,  except  where  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  de- 
manded a  change;  in  reality  they  adhered  far  more  closely 
to  the  Geneva  Bible,  which  aroused  considerable  opposition 
on  the  part  of  the  Catholics  and  the  High  Church  party  of 
the  Church  of  England. 

e.    The   "English"    Revised     Version.      The    increase    in 
knowledge   of   the    original    Greek    and    Hebrew    texts    was 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  demand  for  a  revision  of  the  so- 
called  Authorized  Version,  after  it  had  held  its  ground  for 
more  than  two  centuries.     Partial  translations  were  published 
by  individual  scholars,  and  finally  in  1870  decisive  steps  were 
taken  by  the  convocation  of  the  Province  of  Canterbury  to 
secure  an  authoritative  revision  of  the  whole  English  Bible 
in  the  light  of  the  fullest  modern  knowledge  and  the  best 
Biblical  scholarship.     In  May,   1870,  the  broad  principles  ol 
the  Revision  were  laid  down,  and  a  committee  of   sixteer 
was  appointed  to  execute  the  work,  with  power  to  add  tc 
its  numbers.    The  committee  divided  itself  into  an  Old  Tes- 
tament Company  and  a  New  Testament  Company;  then  rep 
resentative  scholars  of  all  Protestant  denominations  were  in 
vited  to  co-operate,  until  the  membership  of  each  company 
reached  twenty-seven.     However,   deaths,    resignations,   am 
new  appointments  caused  the  exact  number  to  vary   fron 
time  to  time.     When  the  work  had  barely  begun,  an  invita 
tion  was  sent  to  the  Churches  in  America  requesting  thei 
co-operation.    In  response  to  this  request  two  American  com 
panics  were  formed,  to  whom  all  the  results  of  the  Englisl 
companies  were  communicated.    The  American  revisers  coul 
make  suggestions,  but  the  final  decision  rested  with  the  Eng 
lish  companies.    The  suggestions  not  adopted  were  publishe 
in   an   appendix.     The   Revised   Version   represents,   const 
quently,  the  deliberate  opinions  of  a  majority  of  the  bes 
Biblical  scholars  of  all  English-speaking  Protestant  Churche 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.     On  the  twentj 
second  of  June,  1870,  the  English  New  Testament  Compan 
held  its  first  meeting;  the  Old  Testament   Company  bega 


HOW  WE  GOT  OUR  BIBLE 


33 


its  labors  eight  days  later.  On  the  eleventh  of  November, 
1880,  the  New  Testament  revisers  set  their  signatures  to  the 
Preface  of  their  Version,  which  issued  from  the  press  in 
May,  1881.  The  Old  Testament  Preface  is  dated  July  10, 
1884,  and  the  entire  Bible  was  published  in  May,  1885. 

/.  The  American  Revised  Version.  As  already  stated, 
the  preferences  of  the  American  companies  not  adopted  by 
the  English  revisers  were  to  be  published  in  an  appendix  with 
every  copy  of  the  Revised  Version.  In  return  for  this  con- 
sideration the  American  companies  pledged  themselves  for  a 
term  of  fourteen  years — that  is,  until  1899 — not  to  give  sanc- 
tion to  the  publication  of  any  edition  of  the  Revised  Version 
other  than  those  issued  by  the  University  Presses  of  England. 
The  American  Revision  companies,  after  the  publication  of 
the  Revised  Version  in  1885,  resolved  to  continue  their  or- 
ganization, thinking  that  eventually  an  American  recension 
of  the  Revised  Version  might  be  called  for.  That  such  would 
be  the  case  became  a  growing  conviction.  In  1898,  a  shore 
time  before  the  agreement  regarding  the  publication  of  a  Re- 
vised Version  by  the  American  companies  came  to  an  end,  the 
University  Presses  of  England  issued  a  so-called  "American. 
Revised  Version,"  which  transferred  the  American  prefer- 
ences from  the  Appendix  to  the  text  itself.  But  the  American 
revisers  had  been  at  work  all  these  years  in  an  attempt  to 
improve  the  entire  Revised  Version,  and  the  English  "Ameri- 
can Revised  Version"  did  not  meet  their  unqualified  approval. 
Hence  in  1901  they  published  the  "Standard  Edition  of  the 
American  Revised  Version,"  which  in  point  of  accuracy  is 
far  superior  to  the  Revised  Version  of  1885. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  Canon  of  Scripture — 

Old  Testament  Canon ; 

New  Testament  Canon. 
Transmission  of  the  Bible — 

Of  the  Old  Testament; 

Of  the  New  Testament. 
Translations  of  the  Bible. 


34 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


Bibliography: 

Ryle,  "The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament." 
Price,  "The  Ancestry  of  our  English  Bible." 
Kenyon,  "Our  Bible  and  the  Ancient  Manuscripts.** 
Smyth,  "How  We  Got  Our  Bible." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  formation  of  the  New  Testament  canon. 

2.  Existing  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "canon?" 

2.  How  was  the  Old  Testament  canon  formed?     The  Jfew 

Testament  ? 

3.  The  different  forms  through  which  the  Bible  has  passed  in 

reaching  its  present  form. 

4.  The  reasons  for  the  many  translations  of  the  Bible. 

5.  Discuss  the   reasons   for,   and  the   methods  used   in,   the 

making  of  the  Revised  Version. 


CHAPTER  IV 
WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE 

1.  The  Testimony  of  the  Ages.  This  is  a  practical  age 
Men  look  at  everything  from  an  intensely  practical  stand- 
point. Hence,  when  the  study  of  the  Bible  is  urged  upon 
them,  they  naturally  inquire,  Is  is  worth  while?  To  this 
inquiry  history  answers  a  most  emphatic  Yes !  Surely  the 
words  of  Dean  Farrar  are  none  too  strong:  "How  absurd 
it  must  be  to  scoff  at  a  book  which,  through  all  the  long 
centuries,  thousands  of  great  men  have  reverenced  in  pro- 
portion to  their  greatness ;  a  book  for  which,  in  age  after  age, 
warriors  have  fought,  philosophers  labored,  and  martyrs  bled  J 
.  .  .  All  that  is  best  and  greatest  in  the  literature  of  two 
thousand  years  has  been  rooted  in  it.  It  has  inspired  the 
career  of  all  the  best  of  men  who  'raised  strong  arms  tc 
bring  heaven  a  little  nearer  to  our  earth.'  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  learned  from  its  pages  his  tenderness  for  the  poor ;  and 
John  Howard  his  love  for  the  suffering;  and  William  Wil- 
berforce  his  compassion  for  the  slaves ;  and  Lord  Shaftesbury 
the  dedication  of  his  life  to  the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of 
his  countrymen.  Has  there  been  one  of  our  foremost  states- 
men or  our  best  philanthropists  who  has  not  confessed  the 
force  of  its  inspiration?  ...  It  inspired  the  pictures  of 
Fra.  Angelico  and  Raphael,  the  music  of  Handel  and  Men- 
delssohn. It  kindled  the  intrepid  genius  of  Luther,  the  bright 
imagination  of  Bunyan,  the  burning  zeal  of  Whitefield  The 
hundred  best  books,  the  hundred  best  pictures,  the  hundred 
greatest  strains  of  music  are  all  in  it  and  all  derived  frori  *.." 

35 


36  THE  WORKER  AtoL)  HIS  BIBLE 

Surely  a  book  that  has  accomplished  such  things  is  worthy 
of  the  closest  study.  Or,  is  there  reason  to  believe  that  it 
has  lost  any  of  its  former  power?  No  close  observer  will 
•admit  this.  Goethe,  the  poet  and  thinker,  the  genius,  the  mao 
of  talents  and  scientific  insight,  in  many  respects  a  type  oi 
modern  culture,  was  very  fond  of  Bible  reading;  and  this 
is  what  he  said,  among  other  things,  concerning  it:  "Let 
\  culture  and  science  go  on  advancing,  and  the  mind  progress 
as  it  may,  it  will  never  go  beyond  the  elevation  and  moral 
culture  of  Christianity  as  it  glistens  and  shines  forth  in  the 
•Gospels."  And  again,  "The  greater  the  intellectual  progress 
of  the  ages,  the  more  fully  possible  will  it  also  become  to 
employ  the  Bible  both  as  the  foundation  and  as  the  instru- 
ment of  education — of  that  education  by  which  not  pedants 
but  truly  wise  men  are  formed." 

2.  Literary  Excellence  of  the  Bible.  Well  has  it  been 
said  that  the  Bible  "is  a  literature  which  no  age  or  nation 
can  equal  or  supersede,  though  every  library  in  the  world 
had  remained  unravaged  and  every  teacher's  truest  words 
had  been  written  down."  A  great  multitude  of  literary  men 
have  given  expression  to  their  high  estimate  of  the  literary 
excellence  of  the  Bible;  and  the  more  we  know  of  other 
literatures  of  antiquity,  the  more  evident  it  becomes  ^hat  even 
from  the  literary  viewpoint  the  Bible  is  far  superior  to  any 
other  literary  remains  of  ancient  civilizations.  It  contains 
sublime  specimens  of  history,  law,  poetry,  oratory,  and,  in- 
deed, of  practically  every  kind  of  literary  composition  found 
outside  of  the  Bible.  Aside  from  all  religious  considerations, 
then — if  we  consider  the  study  of  ancient  literatures  an  es- 
sential part  of  a  liberal  education,  by  what  process  of  reason- 
ing can  we  justify  the  exclusion  of  this  "Book  of  Books" 
from  our  study? 

In  a  small  volume  in  the  Modern  Reader's  Bible,  entitled 
"Biblical  Masterpieces,"  Professor  Moulton  has  collected  the 
best  specimens  of  Biblical  literature,  but  other  portions  are 
not  without  literary  beauty  and  power.  Indeed,  as  the  same 


WHY  STUDY   THE  BIBLE  37 

author  suggests,  the  Biblical  classics  are  by  no  means  in- 
ferior to  the  Hellenic.  "If  the  inimitable  freshness  of  life  is 
preserved  in  Homer,  it  is  not  less  preserved  in  the  epic  stories 
of  the  Old  Testament  (found  especially  in  the  Book  of  Gen- 
esis) ;  while  the  still  more  intangible  simplicity  of  the  idyl  is 
found  perfect  in  Ruth  and  Tobit;  the  orations  of  Deuter- 
onomy are  as  noble  models  as  the  orations  of  Cicero.  Read' 
by  the  side  of  the  poetry  of  the  Psalms,  the  lyrics  of  Pindar 
seem  almost  provincial.  The  imaginative  poetry  of  the  Greeks 
is  perfect  in  its  own  sphere ;  but  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  as  \ 
bold  an  imagination  is  carried  into  the  mysteries  of  the  spir- 
itual world.  If  the  philosophy  of  Plato  and  his  successors  \ 
has  a  special  interest  as  the  starting  point  for  a  progression 
of  thought  still  going  on  as  modern  science,  yet  the  field  of 
Biblical  wisdom  offers  an  attraction  of  a  different  kind,  in 
a  progression  of  thought  which  has  run  its  full  round  and 
has  reached  a  position  of  rest.  Most  interesting  is  it  to  fol- 
low the  sagacity  of  the  classic  historians  as  they  analyze  a  \ 
dead  past;  but  the  historic  writings  of  the  New  Testament 
keep  us  in  touch  with,  the  coming  into  being  of  thoughts  and: 
institutions  which  are  with  us  yet  in  their  full  vigor.  And 
in  the  inner  circle  of  the  world's  masterpieces,  in  which  all 
kinds  of  literary  influences  meet,  the  Bible  has  placed  Job, 
the  isaiahan  Rhapsody  (especially  chapters  I,  5,  40 — 53,  60— 
62),  the  Apocalypse,  unsurpassed  and  unsurpassable," 

3.  Bible  Study  and  a  Knowledge  of  Literature  and  His- 
tory. Charles  Dudley  Warner  points  out  the  importance  o£ 
a  knowledge  of  the  Bible  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
world's  best  literature  in  these  striking  words :  "Wholly 
apart  from  its  religious  or  from  its  ethical  value,  the  Bible-! 
is  the  one  book  that  no  intelligent  person  who  wishes  to 
come  into  contact  with  the  world  of  thought  and 'to  share 
the  ideas  of  the  great  minds  of  the  Christian  era  can  af-  \ 
ford  to  be  ignorant  of.  All  modern  literature  and  all  art 
are  permeated  with  it.  There  is  scarcely  a  great  work  in 
the  language  that  can  be  fully  understood  and  enjoyed  with- 


38  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

out  this  knowledge,  so  full  is  it  of  allusions  and  illustrations 
from  the  Bible.    This  is  true  of  fiction,  of  poetry,  of  economic 
and  philosophic  works,  and  also  of  the  scientific  and  even 
\  agnostic  treatises.    It  is  not  at  all  a  question  of  religion,  or 
1  theology,  or  of  dogma;  it  is  a  question  of  general   intelli- 
\geijcje,    A  boy  or  girl  at  college  in  the  presence  of  the  works 
Iset  for  either  to  master,   without  a   fair  knowledge  of  the 
'Bible  is  an  ignoramus  and  is  disadvantaged  accordingly.     It 
is  in  itself  almost  a  liberal  education,  as  many  great  masters 
in  literature  have  testified.     It  has  so  entered  into  law,  lit- 
erature,  thought,    the    whole    modern    life    of   the    Christian 
world,  that  jgnorance  of  it  is  a  most  serious  disadvantage  to 
the  student." 

And  who  can  understand  the  history  of  England,  Ger- 
many, the  United  States,  and  other  civilized  nations  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures?  They  have  been  the  guide, 
the  inspiration,  the  ennoblement,  the  statesman's  manual  of 
the  greatest  nations  in  the  world.  Even  some  of  the  dark 
blots  in  the  history  of  these  nations  are  to  be  traced  to  the 
Bible,  though  in  these  cases  the  Bible  misinterpreted  or  mis- 
applied. 

4.  The  Unique  Religious  Value  of  the  Bible.  Whatever 
the  importance  of  Bible  study  along  the  lines  suggested  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs,  the  permanent  religious  and  ethical 
value  of  its  teaching  supplies  the  chief  reason  of  its  study. 
It  would  be  easy  to  adduce  thousands  of  testimonials  to  sup- 
port the  statement  of  the  apostle  that  "the  Scriptures  are  able 
tojnake  wise  unto  salvation  through  faith  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus.  Every  Scripture  inspired  of  God  is  also  profitable  for 
/teaching,  for ;  reproof,  for  correction,  for 'instruction  which 
is  in  righteousness,  that  the  man  of  God  may  be  complete,  fur- 
nished completely  unto  every  good  work."  These  words  call 
attention  to  three  stages  in  the  Christian  life  ('the  exercise  of 
a  saving  faith  in  Jesus  ;4he  development  of  a  strong  and  noble 
character;  and  the  performance  of  good  works;  in  other 
words,  faith,  knowledge,  service.  According  to  the  writer. 


WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE 


39 


the  Bible  may  be  of  the  greatest  value  in  each  one  of  these 
stages,  and  the  experience  of  the  centuries  has  confirmed  the 
claim.  And  what  may  be  said  of  the  Bible  as  a  source  of 
consolation!  How  many  in  the  hour  of  sorrow,  grief,  and 
bereavement  have  turned  to  the  Scriptures  and  there  found 
hope  and  consolation  (Rom.  15:4)  !  No  wonder  that  Renan 
calls  the  Bible  "the  great  book  of  consolation  for  humanity!" 
The  Bible  possesses  such  unique  religious  value  for  several 
reasons:  In  the  first, place,  it  presents  not  the  only,  but  surely  ) 
the  most  comprehensive,  vision  of  God  that  may  be  found 
anywhere.  God,  a  spirit,  personal,  with  a  clearly  denned 
moral  character,  in  His  fatherly  mercy  condescending  to  en- 
ter into  covenant  relations  with  men,  loving  man  and  desir- 
ing to  be  loved  by  him,  His  anger  aroused  by  sin,  but  gracious 
toward  the  repenting  sinner.  Again,  the  Bible  is  of  perma-  2. 
nent  religious  value  because  of  its  keen  insight  into  human 
nature.  It  has  been  called  the  "family  album  of  the  Holy 
God;"  we  might  liken  it  rather  to  a  picture  gallery.  What 
a  variety !  Everywhere  we  see  them  flesh  and  blood !  Why 
is  it  they  impress  us  so?  Is  it  not  because  the  pictures  are 
so  true  to  human  nature  that,  in  spite  of  the  difference  in 
time,  place,  and  circumstances,  they  may  serve  even  us  as 
mirrors?  In  studying  these  character  sketches  we  may  learn 
both  'how  men  with  a  sublime  vision  of  God  live  and  should 
live,  and- how  those  without  such  a  vision  live  and  should  not 
live.  Moreover,  the  Bible  teaches,  as  no  other  book  can,  how  3 
this  vision  of  God  may  be  ours  and  its  powers  be  felt  in  our 
lives.  What  an  inspiration  to  trace  the  workings  of  God 
throughout  the  centuries  for  the  purpose  of  making  Himself 
known,  and  to  draw  all  men  unto  Him  in  loving  obedience! 
And  then  to  watch  the  consummation  of  the  plan  of  redemp- 
tion in  Jesus  Christ,  through  whom  all  may  know  God  and 
come  into  vital  relations  with  Him!  And  finally,  all  these 
truths  are  presented  in  a  manner  that  even  the  simplest  can 
understand.  Truly,  the  Bible  is  "the  one  book  wherein,  for 
thousands  of  years,  the  spirit  of  man  has  found  light  and 


4o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

nourishment,  and  a  response  to  whatever  was  deepest  in  his 
heart." 

a.  The  Permanent  Religious  Significance  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Writings.  As  Christians  we  find  our  loftiest  inspira- 
tion in  the  study  of  the  life,  character,  and  teaching  of  Jesus 
and  of  His  disciples.  _But  the  New  Testament  has  by  no 
means  displaced  the  Old.  Jesus  and  His  disciples  found  soul- 
food  in  the  pages  of  the  Old  Testament  and  constantly  ex- 
horted their  followers  to  do  the  same;  and  the  early  Chris- 
tians were  right  in  placing  it  beside  the  New  Testament,  for 
not  only  is  a  knowledge  of  the  Old  Testament  necessary 
for  a  right  appreciation  of  the  New,  but  the  Old  Testament 
itself  is  still  of  inestimable  value.  True,  the  New  Testament 
presents  a  more  complete  and  perfect  conception  of  the  truth, 
but  there  are  few  New  Testament  truths  that  have  not  their 
roots  in  the  Old;  and  a  vast  number  of  people,  who  them- 
selves have  not  yet  reached  a  state  of  perfection,  will  under- 
stand even  New  Testament  truths  more  readily  as  they  are 
presented  in  the  Old  Testament,  for  here  they  can  see  the 
tr  uths  in  concrete  form ;  they  have  flesh  and  blood ;  they  are 
struggling  for  victory  over  darkness  and  superstition.  Nearly 
all  the  great  and  vital  doctrines  of  the  Church,  though 
founded  principally  on  the  New  Testament,  become  more  real 
and  human,  more  impressive  and  forceful,  as  we  study  their 
•development  under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation. 

Aside  from  these  general  considerations,  the  student  can 
•easily  convince  himself  that  every  part  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  filled  with  religious  teaching  that  even  to-day  is  of  the 
highest  importance  to  any  one  who  desires  to  develop  a  pure 
and  noble  character  and  to  serve  well  his  day  and  generation. 
Take  the  first  eleven  chapters  of  Genesis — while  we  should 
not  go  to  these  chapters  to  study  geology,  astronomy,  biology, 
or  any  other  science,  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis  do  re- 
veal what  connection  the  world  has  with  God,  how  everything 
may  be  traced  to  Him  as  the  fountain  head  of  life,  that  there 
is  a  unifying  principle  and  purpose  underlying  the  origin  and 


WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  41 

nistory  of  the  globe,  and  many  other  religious  and  ethical 
truths  that  afford  a  truer  conception  of  God,  man,  and  of 
the  divine  plan  and  purpose  for  the  latter.  These  chapters 
are  followed  by  the  stories  of  the  patriarchs.  Missionaries 
tell  us,  and  experience  at  home  has  confirmed  the  claim,  that 
the  stories  of  the  patriarchs  are  of  inestimable  value  to  im- 
press lessons  of  the  reality  and  providence  of  God  and  to  en- 
courage the  exercise  of  faith  and  confidence  in  Him.  There 
is  nothing  that  can  be  substituted  for  them  in  religious  in- 
struction. "Abraham,"  says  Professor  Driver,  "is  still  the 
hero  of  righteousness  and  faith ;  Lot  and  Laban,  Sarah  and 
Rebekah,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph,  in  their  characters  and 
experiences,  are  still  in  different  ways  types  of  our  own  selves, 
and  still  in  one  way  or  another  exemplify  the  ways  in  which 
God  deals  with  the  individual  soul,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  individual  soul  ought  or  ought  not  to  respond  to  Hia 
leadings."  The  history  of  the  Hebrews  is  one  continuous 
illustration  of  the  reality  of  a  divine  providence,  and  the 
historical  books  reveal  on  every  page  the  hand  of  God  in 
human  history.  In  a  more  specific  way  they  show  the  un- 
folding, in  the  mind  of  man,  under  the  influence  of  the  di- 
vine, of  those  great  religious  and  ethical  ideas  which  have  be* 
come  the  mainspring  of  humanity's  progress.  The  Hebrews 
have  been,  and  their  history  still  is,  the  religious  and  ethical 
teacher  of  mankind. 

How  can  we  estimate  rightly  the  devotional  value  of  the 
Psalter?  Truly,  "what  the  heart  is  in  man  that  is  the  Psalter 
in  the  Bible."  Here  we  have  the  outpourings  of  human  souls 
in  the  closest  fellowship  with  God,  giving  without  restraint 
expression  to  the  most  various  emotions,  hopes,  desires,  and 
aspirations.  What  other  literary  compositions  lift  us  into 
such  atmosphere  of  religious  thought  and  emotion?  Surely 
the  sweet  singers  enjoy  a  pre-eminence  from  which  they  can 
never  be  removed.  Again,  take  the  Wisdom  Literature. 
Where  do  we  find  such  compacted,  sanctified  common  sense 
as  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs;  a  more  consistent  application  of 


42  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  principles  of  pure  and  undenled  religion  to  the  daily  life, 
be  it  of  the  individual,  or  of  the  family,  or  of  the  State? 
Where  can  be  found  more  lofty  religious  speculation  than  in 
the  Book  of  Job?  or  more  persistent  mental  struggles  with 
the  perplexing  problems  of  life  than  in  Ecclesiastes,  closing 
with  the  triumphant  assertion,  "Fear  God  and  keep  His 
commandments,  for  this  is  the  whole  duty  of  man?" 

But  in  this  age,  when  the  responsibility  of  the  individual 
Christian  and  of  the  Christian  Church  toward  the  practical 
social,  moral,  and  religious  problems  and  evils  is  recognized 
more  than  at  any  previous  time,  the  prophetic  literature  is 
worthy  of  the  most  careful  study  on  the  part  of  all.  The 
prophets  of  old  met  in  the  strength  of  God  and  at  the  divine 
impulse  the  problems  and  evils  in  their  age.  They  had  to 
face  the  problems  of  materialism  and  commercialism;  the 
evils  resulting  from  the  accumulation  of  wealth,  power,  and 
resources  in  the  hands  of  a  few ;  very  serious  labor  problems, 
cruelty,  oppression,  arrogance  on  the  part  of  the  rich  propri- 
etors ;  corruption  in  government  and  the  administration  of 
justice;  they  had  to  grapple  with  a  cold,  heartless  formalism 
that  threatened  to  destroy  pure  spiritual  religion.  Surely  it 
is  a  part  of  our  duty  as  Christians  to  do  our  share  toward  a 
Christian  solution  of  the  social  and  religious  problems  of  the 
day;  and  in  our  efforts  to  accomplish  this  end  we  may  learn 
much  from  the  prophets  of  old.  (Compare,  for  example,  the 
permanent  lessons  of  the  Book  of  Amos  pointed  out  in 
Chapter  XII.) 

b.  The  Permanent  Religious  Value  of  the  New  Testament. 
All  the  features  that  give  to  the  Old  Testament  such  unique 
value  appear  in  even  greater  numbers  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  here  in  a  purer  and  more  perfect  form.  Any  one  ac- 
quainted with  the  New  Testament  writings  knows  that  their 
one  purpose  is  to  promote  man's  living  union  with  God  and 
to  help  him  reflect  in  his  own  life  the  purity  and  holiness 
of  the  Divine  pattern :  "Be  ye  perfect  even  as  your  Father 
in  heaven  is  perfect."  How  numerous  are  the  passages  con- 


WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  43 

cerning  the  nature  and  character  of  God,  the  character  and 
work  of  the  Christ ;  the  denunciations  of  sin  and  vice  opposed 
to  man's  union  with  God,  the  exhortations  to  virtue  and 
purity  of  heart  and  life !  The  Gospels  supply  most  excellent 
material  for  Christian  nurture  in  the  discourses,  miracles,  and 
parables  of  Jesus.  The  "Sermon  on  the  Mount"  with  its  sub- 
lime beatitudes,  and  other  discourses  of  Jesus,  will  forever 
remain  a  source  of  light  and  devotion  to  the  attentive  student. 
The  narratives  of  the  miracles  are  most  suggestive  of  feel- 
ings of  admiration  and  love  and  thanksgiving  to  God.  In  like 
manner  the  parables  are  an  inexhaustible  source  of  light  and 
strength  to  any  one  who  ponders  on  them.  More  instructive 
and  inspiring  still  is  our  Lord's  biography.  Whether  we  con- 
template Him  in  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  workshop 
at  Nazareth,  in  the  synagogue  in  Galilee,  in  His  triumphal 
entrance  into  Jerusalem,  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  on  the 
cross,  or  after  His  resurrection — wherever  we  behold  Him, 
He  is  ever  and  always  the  perfect  pattern  "of  the  new  man, 
which  after  God  is  created  in  righteousness  and  true  holi- 
ness." And  the  more  the  character  and  life  of  Jesus  are 
studied,  and  dwelt  upon,  the  more  they  will  be  seen  to  ex- 
hibit, wonderfully  combined  in  one  person,  "whatsoever  things 
are  honorable,  whatsoever  things  are  just,  whatsoever  things 
are  pure,  whatsoever  things  are  lovely,  whatsoever  things  are 
of  good  report ;"  the  more  they  will  appear  to  be  in  all  points 
worthy  of  our  contemplation,  and  the  more  they  will  inspire 
us  to  earnest  imitation.  In  addition  to  this  Exemplar  of  all 
perfection  the  New  Testament  furnishes  character  sketches 
of  a  large  number  of  faithful  disciples  of  Jesus.  Have  Paul, 
John,  Peter,  Martha,  Mary,  Timothy,  Luke,  Titus,  the  early 
Christians  in  Jerusalem,  or  Antioch,  or  Corinth,  no  message 
for  the  twentieth  century?  Indeed,  they  have;  they  supply 
excellent  material  for  study  and  meditation;  and  if  properly 
used  they  will  promote  a  closer  union  of  hearts,  minds,  and 
lives  with  the  Almighty. 

Let  us  glance  for  a  moment  at  the  Epistles.     They  were 


44 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


written  for  the  instruction  of  men  like  ourselves;  to  "meet 
the  emergencies  that  arose  in  the  planting  and  growth  of  the 
Churches ;  to  lay  the  basis  for  a  rational,  spiritual  life  of 
faith  in  the  living  Jesus."  They  deal  with  all  the  essential 
elements,  doctrinal  and  practical,  of  Christian  life  and  activity. 
There  is  not  an  Epistle  but  which,  if  properly  studied,  will 
enrich  experience  and  life.  The  New  Testament  closes  with 
that  mysterious  book — Revelation.  Many  parts  of  it  may  ap- 
pear mysterious  and  hard  to  understand;  but  it  contains  also 
much  practical  instruction.  It  surely  may  serve  to  bring 
Jesus,  the  exalted  Redeemer,  close  to  man  in  his  life  strug- 
gles, for  the  book  makes  it  clear  that  a  watchful  eye  is  rest- 
ing upon  the  affairs  of  men  in  this  life.  Revelation  assures 
us  that  these  sorrows,  temptations,  and  trials  are  to  end  at 
last  in  complete  victory,  in  everlasting  peace  and  joy.  Is  this 
no  message  to  strengthen,  to  encourage,  to  inspire  the  Chris- 
tian in  the  battlefields  of  life? 

Truly,  one  may  look  where  he  will  in  the  pages  of  the 
sacred  Book,  from  first  to  last,  and  everywhere  he  will  find 
words  of  wisdom,  of  encouragement,  of  consolation,  of  in- 
spiration, of  life.  A  book  of  this  character  deserves  the  clos- 
est and  most  persistent  searching  and  inquiry. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  testimony  of  the  ages. 

The  literary  excellence  of  the  Bible. 

Importance  of  Bible  study  to  a  knowledge  of  literature  and 

history. 

Unique  religious  value. 
Permanent  religious  value. 


Bibliography  : 


Briggs,  "The  Study  of  Holy  Scripture." 
Lock,  "The  Bible  in  Christian  Life." 
Prothero,  "The  Psalms  in  Human  Life." 
Jordan,  "Prophetic  Ideas  and  Ideals." 


WHY  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  45 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

j.  The  literary  masterpieces  of  the  Bible. 

2.  The  bearing  of  prophetic  teaching  on  modern  social  and 

political  problems. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

i.  Reasons  for  studying  the  Bible. 

2    Why  is  the  Bible  of  so  great  religious  value? 

3.  Ways  in  which  the  New  Testament  aids  in  the  perfecting 

of  character. 


CHAPTER  V 
HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE 

1.  Mere  Reading  is  not  Study.  The  transition  from  the 
Why  to  the  How  of  Bible  study  is  quite  natural.  The  first 
point  to  be  noted  is,  that  mere  reading  of  the  Bible  is  not 
study  of  the  Bible.  There  are  undoubtedly  those  who  imagine 
that  there  is  a  certain  merit  in  the  reading  of  a  stated  por- 
tion of  the  Bible  every  morning  and  evening,  as  there  are 
those  who  seem  to  feel  that  "saying  their  prayers"  is  an  act 
of  merit.  Thomas  Fuller  apparently  has  in  mind  this  me- 
chanical reading  when  he  writes :  "Lord,  I  discover  an  arrant 
laziness  in  my  soul.  For  when  I  am  to  read  a  chapter  in 
the  Bible,  before  I  begin  I  look  where  it  endeth.  And  if  it 
endeth  not  on  the  same  side  I  can  not  keep  my  hands  from 
turning  over  the  leaf  to  measure  the  length  thereof  on  the 
other  side;  if  it  swells  to  many  verses  I  begin  to  grudge. 
Surely  my  heart  is  not  rightly  affected."  This  kind  of  Bible 
reading,  no  matter  how  long  continued,  and  no  matter  how 
much  ground  covered,  nor  how  often  covered,  will  never  in- 
troduce the  Christian  to  the  riches  of  the  sacred  Book.  To 
learn  its  lessons,  to  appropriate  its  truths,  to  feed  with  its 
message  the  hungry  soul,  one  must  give  to  its  pages  earnest 
study,  diligent  searching,  persistent  inquiry,  tireless  zeal.  But, 
some  one  may  ask,  Granting  that  I  must  study  the  Scriptures 
earnestly  and  diligently,  how  am  I  to  go  about  it  so  as  to 
receive  the  greatest  benefit?  In  answer  to  this  inquiry  this 
chapter  will  consider  two  essential  factors  in  all  proper  and 
successful  Bible  study:  (i)  Methods  of  study;  (2)  The  right 
spirit  in  Bible  study. 

46 


HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  47 

2.  The  Literary  Method  of  Bible  Study.      The  compara-  , 
tively  recent  discovery  that  the  Bible  contains  sublime  speci-  | 
mens  of  various  forms  of  literature  has  given  rise  to  what 
may  be  called  the  literary  method  of  Bible  study.    The  liter- 
ary student  is  wide-awake  to  the  literary  form  of  Scripture; 
he  recognizes  the  presence  of  literary  masterpieces  and  studies 
them  from  the  literary  standpoint.    Now  it  is  unquestionably 
true  that  without  proper  regard  for  the  literary  form  of  the 
Scriptures  the  deeper  significance  of  their  teaching  can  not 
be   understood.     Unfortunately   the    devotional    student   has 
often  overlooked  this  fact,  and  as  a  result,  in  many  cases, 
has  failed  to  understand  the  real  significance  of  a  passage. 
On  the  other  hand,  over-emphasis   of  the  literary   features 
may  blind  the  eyes  to  the  real  purpose  of  the  Book.    After  all, 
the  Scriptures  were  not  written  and  collected  primarily  as 
specimens  of  various  forms  of  literature,  but  to  record  and 
interpret  divine  revelations;  and  it  is  readily  seen  that  in  the 
pursuit  of  a  narrow  literary  method  insufficient  weight  may 
be  given  to  this  primary  purpose.    However  important  it  may 
be  to  estimate  correctly  the  literary  features  of  the  Bible,  the 
Christian  can  not  be  content  with  studying  its  writings  as  he 
would  study  history,  or  poetry,  or  other  forms  of  literature 
outside  of  the  Bible. 

3.  Devotional    Bible    Study.     The    primary    purpose    of 
the  Biblical  writers  was  to  record  and  interpret  the  mani- 
fold revelations  of  God  as  seen  and  apprehended  by  them. 
This  being  the  case,  the  primary  purpose  of  the  Bible  study 
should  be  to  understand  these  revelations  of  God,  to  know 
Him,  His  nature,  character,  and  will,  and  by  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  these  to  bring  God  nearer  to  us  and  us  nearer 
to  Him  in  obedience  and  love.     It  follows  that  the  study  of 
the  Bible  as  a  book  of  devotion  is  the  only  adequate  kind  of 
Bible  study. 

a.  Dangers  of  Unsystematic  Bible  Study.  The  purpose  of 
the  devotional  student  of  the  Bible  is  to  discover  what  is  the 
Aessage  of  the  portion  studied,  be  it  great  or  small,  to  his 


48  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

own  soul  and  life.  This  to  some  seems  exceedingly  simple. 
Many  open  the  Bible  and  read  or  study  wherever  attention  is 
accidentally  arrested,  sometimes  the  passage  the  eye  lights 
upon,  sometimes  the  spot  touched  by  the  finger.  John  Ruskin 
aptly  describes  the  manner  in  which  many  Christian  people 
seek  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  Bible.  The  way  they  read 
their  Bibles,  he  says,  is  "just  like  the  way  the  old  monks 
thought  that  hedgehogs  ate  grapes.  They  rolled  themselves, 
it  was  said,  over  and  over  where  the  grapes  lay  on  the 
ground.  What  fruit  stuck  to  their  spines  they  carried  off  and 
ate.  So,"  he  continues,  "your  hedgehoggy  readers  roll  them- 
selves over  and  over  their  Bibles,  and  whatever  texts  first 
stick  to  their  spines  they  carry  off  and  feed  on.  But,"  he 
adds,  "you  can  only  get  the  skins  of  the  texts  that  way;  if 
you  want  their  juice  you  must  press  them  in  cluster." 

Some  good  may  undoubtedly  be  derived  even  in  this  hap- 
hazard way.  Even  the  most  simple  may  open  the  Book  al- 
most anywhere  and  find  encouragement,  or  inspiration,  or 
consolation,  or  whatever  else  he  may  need;  and  this  fact  is 
a  strong  evidence  of  the  presence  of  a  divine  element  in  the 
Book.  But  surely  it  is  not  wise,  yea,  it  is  not  right,  to  feed 
on  crumbs  wh^n  there  is  provided  a  constant,  inexhaustible 
feast  Moreo\er,  this  superficial,  though  devout,  study  is 
fraught  with  grave  dangers.  It  gives  to  the  reader  not  only 
a  fragmentary  conception  of  the  truth;  it  may  give  him  an 
entirely  false  idea  of  the  teaching  of  a  passage.  A  text 
wrested  from  its  connection  may  be  made  to  mean  almost 
anything. 

If  the  Bible  is  a  book  written  many  centuries  ago  by 
men  of  an  entirely  different  race,  of  different  modes  of  think- 
ing and  expression,  the  greater  part  in  a  language  foreign 
to  any  of  the  languages  with  which  we  are  ordinarily  fa- 
miliar, dealing  with  the  profoundest  subjects  with  which  the 
human  mind  can  grapple,  with  subjects  that  directly  or  in- 
directly are  related  to  all  kinds  of  knowledge;  if  the  Bible 
is  such  a  book,  who  can  expect  to  understand  its  teaching 
after  a  superficial  reading  or  study?  One  of  the  first  require- 


HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  49 

ments  to  assure  results  in  devotional  Bible  study  is  the  adop- 
tion of  a  proper  method  of  study.  Of  various  methods  sug- 
gested there  are,  apart  from  the  method  pursued  in  Sunday- 
school,  with  which  the  reader  is  familiar,  especially  three  that 
enjoy  more  or  less  popularity:  The  Topical  Method;  The 
Study  by  Characters;  The  Study  by  Books. 

b.  The  Topical  Method  of  Bible  Study.    In  following  out 
the  topical  method  of  Bible  study  the  student  becomes  in- 
terested in  certain  great  subjects,  such  as  faith,  love,  salva- 
tion, heaven,  and  others.    He  decides  to  discover  all  the  Bible 
has  to  say  on  these  topics ;   so  he  takes  the  Bible,  a  con- 
cordance, or  some  help  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose, 
and,  going  through  the  entire  Bible,  reads  and  studies  ev.ry 
passage  containing  the  term. 

That  this  method,  if  properly  used,  may  prove  helpful  can 
not  be  denied;  that  very  often  it  is  a  source  of  serious  error 
is  equally  true.  Most  of  the  false  theologies  and  false  ethics 
of  modern  times  are  traceable  to  this  method  of  Bible  study. 
And  this  is  easily  explained,  for,  in  the  first  place,  such  stuc*y 
is  only  fragmentary.  Love,  or  faith,  or  any  other  Bible  truth, 
may  be  taught  or  elaborated  in  a  passage  which  does  not 
contain  these  terms;  yet  this  method  makes  it  possible  to 
carry  on  the  study  with  entire  disregard  of  such  passages. 
Moreover,  the  topical  method  tends  to  wrest  separate  state- 
ments from  their  contexts,  and  thus  to  obscure  or  even  per- 
vert their  meaning.  Not  one  great  doctrine  of  the  Christian 
Church  has  escaped  perversion  on  the  part  of  those  who 
failed  to  exercise  the  proper  caution  while  pursuing  the  top- 
ical study,  and  thus  discredit  has  been  brought  upon  the  Bible 
and  Christianity.  Indeed,  the  topical  method  is  a  snare  to 
the  unwary.  To  follow  it  successfully,  one  must  already 
have  mastered  the  Bible  as  a  whole,  so  as  not  to  pervert  the 
meaning  of  the  separate  parts. 

c.  The  Study  of  the  Bible  by  Characters.    A  better  method 
than  the  preceding,  and  one  quite  popular,  is  the  study  of 


50  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  Bible  by  characters.  The  great  personalities  of  the  Bible, 
such  as  Abraham,  Joseph,  Samuel,  David,  Jesus,  John,  Paul, 
and  others,  are  selected,  and  their  lives  and  characters  are 
made  the  subjects  of  study.  Thus  the  student  becomes  ac- 
quainted with  their  excellencies,  their  weaknesses,  their  vic- 
tories, their  defeats,  their  temptations  and  struggles,  in  fact 
with  everything  that  touched  their  lives  and  helped  to  mold 
their  characters.  These  were  men  like  ourselves,  with  the 
same  natures,  the  same  temptations  and  struggles,  and  a  study 
of  their  lives  and  experiences  may  be  an  inspiration  or  warn- 
ing, as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  one  who  pursues  the  study. 

This  is  a  perfectly  legitimate  method  of  Bible  study. 
Moreover,  it  is  a  very  simple  method,  which  every  one,  even 
the  least  experienced,  may  pursue  to  his  unspeakable  advan- 
tage. In  addition,  it  is  a  method  that  readily  yields  results, 
for  every  single  character  teaches  one  or  more  practical  les- 
sons, and  the  farther  the  student  advances  the  greater  and 
the  more  precious  the  truths  learned;  and  in  the  end,  if  the 
study  is  pursued  with  patience  and  perseverance,  if  the  les- 
sons learned  are  consistently  applied  by  the  student  to  his 
own  life  and  character,  the  result  will  manifest  itself  in  a 
godly,  Christlike  life  and  character. 

d.  The  Study  of  the  Bible  by  Books.  A  third  method,  and 
the  one  almost  universally  recognized  as  the  most  satisfactory 
in  the  end,  is  the  study  of  the  Bible  by  books.  Attention  has 
been  called  several  times  to  the  importance  of  looking  at  the 
context  of  a  passage  of  Scripture  in  order  to  determine  its 
exact  meaning.  But  what  is  the  context?  Is  it  only  a  sen- 
tence before  or  after  the  particular  passage  the  student  is 
considering?  Sometimes  that  may  be  all.  In  other  cases 
it  may  be  a  chapter  or  two;  in  still  others  it  is  the  whole 
book;  indeed,  one  can  never  be  sure  that  he  is  getting  the 
precise  point  of  view  and  real  meaning  of  any  one  sentence 
of  any  book  unless  he  takes  it  as  a  part  of  the  whole  and 
with  reference  to  the  general  line  of  thought  and  practical 
design  of  the  author.  It  is  this  kind  of  study,  and  this  kind 


HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  51 

of  study  alone,  that  will  save  the  reader  from  misunderstand- 
ing and  misinterpretation.  Moreover,  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that,  while  the  Bible  is  in  a  real  sense  one  book,  one 
plan,  one  spirit,  one  purpose  running  throughout  the  whole, 
in  another  sense  it  is  a  library  consisting  of  many  books. 
These  were  written  and  published  separately,  each  with  its 
own  meaning  and  purpose.  Since,  then,  each  of  the  sacred 
books  has  its  own  aim  and  value,  it  goes  almost  without  say- 
ing that  the  Bible  student  should  try  to  get  the  practical  im- 
pression that  each  of  them  is  designed  to  make.  For  instance, 
each  of  the  Gospels  presents  certain  aspects  of  the  life,  char- 
acter, and  work  of  Jesus.  If,  now,  the  student  finds  out  how 
each  of  the  Gospels  portrays  Him,  and  then  blends  them  all 
together  in  loving  faith,  in  reverence,  and  in  humble  desire 
to  live  like  Him,  he  has  made  the  most  beautiful  harmony  of 
the  Gospels  ever  attempted. 

And  so  it  is  with  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  We  need  the 
practical  inspiration  which  each  particular  book  can  give.  If 
this  method  of  study  is  pursued  intelligently,  it  will  prevent 
misunderstanding  and  misinterpretation,  it  will  furnish  a 
knowledge  of  the  practical  significance  -of  each  part,  and  in 
the  end  will  give  the  most  comprehensive  vision  of  the  whole. 
Only  on  the  basis  of  such  study  can  the  study  by  characters 
or  by  topics  be  pursued  to  the  best  advantage. 

4.  The  Critical  Method  of  Bible  Study.  In  the  method 
of  study  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph  the  student 
has  constantly  in  view  the  message  which  the  book  studied 
may  have  to  his  own  soul  and  life.  But  from  what  has  been 
said  it  must  have  become  clear  that  much  preparatory  work 
must  be  done  before  the  student  can  expect  to  understand 
adequately  the  message  of  the  book.  Now,  there  is  another 
method  of  study,  which  places  much  emphasis  upon  thesa 
preliminary  labors.  For  want  of  a  better  name  it  may  be 
called  the  critical  method.  It  concerns  itself  with  the  text,  to 
determine  its  form  as  it  left  the  hand  of  the  author,  and  seeks 
to  set  in  a  clear  light  the  origin  and  literary  history  of  the 


5»  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

book.  When  was  it  written?  where?  by  whom?  to  whom? 
for  what  purpose?  No  sane  person  can  doubt  that  answers 
to  these  and  similar  questions  are  essential  if  the  message 
of  the  book  is  to  be  understood.  As  long  as  this  method 
of  study  retains  its  proper  place  as  a  means  to  an  end  it 
is  not  only  legitimate,  but  necessary.  However,  it  becomes 
inadequate  and  disastrous  when,  through  overemphasis  of 
preliminary  questions,  the  true  aim  of  Bible  study  is  lost 
sight  of. 

5.  Suggestions  for  the  Study  of  the  Bible  by  Books.  A 
few  words  may  be  added  as  to  the  simplest  manner  in  which 
the  ordinary  Bible  student  can  study  the  Bible  by  books.  For 
the  beginner  it  would  be  best  to  select  a  simple  book ;  for 
example,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  Book  of  Amos ;  in  the 
New  Testament,  one  of  the  Gospels.  Having  made  the  se- 
lection, the  student  should  acquire,  first  of  all,  a  fairly  well 
defined  general  notion  of  its  contents.  This  he  can  do  by 
reading  the  book  carefully,  if  possible  at  one  sitting,  and  read- 
ing it  thus  several  times.  It  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  mat- 
ter to  understand  any  book  if  it  is  read  always  only  in  frag- 
ments. After  reading  the  book  intelligently,  he  should  at- 
tempt to  write  dov/n  the  general  impressions  of  its  theme  and 
substance.  This  should  be  followed  by  another  reading  or 
two,  on  the  basis  of  which  the  impressions  written  down 
should  be  corrected.  This  process  should  be  continued  until 
the  student  has  secured  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  book  as  a 
whole.  But  this  is  only  the  first  step.  The  student  should 
next  get  an  idea  of  the  logical  arrangement  of  the  contents 
of  the  book.  If  he  finds  it  difficult  to  work  this  out  for  him- 
self, he  may  consult  an  analysis  of  the  book  as  found  in  some 
Bible  help.  With  this  analysis  in  mind,  he  should  now  pro- 
ceed to  master  the  book  section  by  section  by  a  careful  study 
of  each  word  and  sentence.  While  it  is  advisable  to  use  in 
this  study  commentaries  and  other  helps,  the  student  must 
never  assign  first  place  to  them;  the  Bible  must  be  the  basis 
of  study,  other  books  should  be  used  only  as  means  to  a 


HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  53 

better  understanding  of  the  message  of  the  Biblical  writer. 
To  best  impress  the  results  upon  his  own  mind,  he  may  do 
well  to  write  them  down.  Having  proceeded  thus  far,  he 
may  cast  aside  the  analysis  used  and  make  one  of  his  own, 
based  upon  the  contents  as  he  interprets  them. 

The  successive  steps  will  enable  the  student  to  view  and 
estimate  the  book  as  a  whole.  Now  he  is  prepared  to  take 
up  the  topical  study  of  that  one  book.  Naturally  the  topics 
will  vary  with  different  books,  but  certain  topics  should  be 
studied  in  connection  with  all  books.  Going  through  the 
book,  the  student  should  collect  all  materials  touching  upon 
the  author,  the  time  and  place  of  writing,  the  purpose,  the 
persons  addressed,  the  conditions  of  the  writer  and  of  the 
first  readers,  the  several  religious  truths  expressed,  and  many 
more.  Every  student  pursuing  his  studies  along  the  lines 
suggested  will  soon  be  prepared  to  make  his  own  list  of 
topics.  After  doing  all  this  the  student  will  become  conscious 
of  having  mastered  the  book,  that  he  understands  its  teach- 
ing, and  that  he  can  apply  it  to  his  own  life  and  conduct  so 
as  to  receive  new  impulses  and  inspiration  to  live  a  Christ- 
like  life.  Now  he  is  ready  to  turn  to  another  book,  until  he 
has  mastered  the  whole  Bible.  While  going  thus  from  book 
to  book  he  may  very  profitably  turn  from  time  to  time  to  a 
book  already  mastered  and  read  small  portions  suitable  to 
the  needs  of  a  particular  time. 

This  kind  of  study  requires  time,  patience,  and  industry; 
but  it  is  the  only  kind  that  in  the  end  will  enable  the  student 
to  determine  for  himself  what  the  Bible  actually  says,  and  will 
give  to  him  a  comprehensive  insight  into  the  mysteries  of 
God  as  revealed  in  the  Bible.  And  after  all,  fifteen  minutes  \ 
or  half  an  hour  a  day,  if  set  aside  regularly,  will  accomplish  ' 
great  things.  In  closing  this  section  the  admission  may  bft 
made  that  there  is,  perhaps,  no  clear-cut  method  of  Bible 
study  that  will  apply  to  all  students  and  all  occasions.  Every 
student  has  peculiarities  of  his  own,  and  naturally  he  will 
adopt  a  method  and  introduce  modifications  which  seem  to 


54 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


him  best  adapted  to  achieve  the  results  he  desires.  Neverthe- 
less, whatever  the  individual  peculiarities,  there  are  certain 
fundamental  principles  which  underlie  all  successful  Bible 
study,  and  to  these  attention  is  called  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs. 

6.  The  Attitude  of  Mind  and  Heart  in  Bible  Study.  A 
second  essential  factor  in  Bible  study  is  the  proper  attitude 
of  mind  and  heart,  the  spirit  in  which  the  student  approaches 
the  Bible.  In  the  first  place,  he  who  seeks  to  obtain  the  best 
results  must  approach  the  Bible  in  the  spirit  of  a  learner;  he 
must  be  humble  and  childlike,  ready  to  receive  instruction. 
Again,  he  must  approach  the  Bible  in  a  spirit  of  open-minded- 
ness,  willing  to  receive  the  truth,  though  that  truth  may  be 
contrary  to  the  notions  cherished  before  thorough  Bible  study 
was  entered  upon.  Moreover,  he  must  enter  upon  the  study 
in  a  spirit  of  expectancy.  The  investigation  of  any  subject 
may  be  approached  in  one  of  three  attitudes  of  mind  as  to 
results.  There  may  be  a  spirit  of  uncertainty  and  indifference, 
or  a  spirit  of  non-expectancy,  or  a  spirit  of  expectancy,  of 
assurance  that  the  efforts  will  not  be  in  vain.  Only  the  stu- 
dent who  approaches  the  study  of  the  Bible  in  the  last-men- 
tioned attitude  and  spirit  will  see  the  most  helpful  results. 
There  must  also  be  a  spirit  of  determination  and  perseverance. 
If  the  student  is  turned  aside  by  any  difficulty,  be  it  great 
or  small,  the  sweet,  full-grown  fruit  can  not  be  his.  The 
richest  truths  of  the  Bible  are  not  found  by  one  who  is 
easily  tired  out.  Bible  study  demands  unwearied  persever- 
ance. Another  essential  requisite  is  a  spirit  of  prayerfulness. 
There  are  sayings  in  the  Bible  hard  to  be  understood,  for  the 
natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  God;  but  the  Spirit 
searcheth  all  things,  even  the  deep  things  of  God.  This  is 
the  Spirit  that  is  to  lead  into  all  truth.  Bible  study  can  never 
be  what  it  should  be  unless  the  student  approaches  the  Sacred 
Book  in  a  spirit  of  prayer  for  the  illumination  of  his  heart 
and  mind  by  the  Spirit  of  truth.  Once  more,  there  must  be 
9.  spirit  of  responsiveness.  By  this  I  mean  more  than  willing- 


HOW  STUDY  THE  BIBLE  53 

ness  to  be  taught.  Sooner  or  later  the  student  finds  that  the 
truths  he  discovers  impose  upon  him  certain  duties  that  ap- 
peal to  his  conscience.  Now,  scientific  truth  is  most  readily 
mastered  by  practical  application.  The  same  is  true  of  moral 
and  religious  truth.  He  that  willeth  to  do  is  the  one  that 
will  learn  the  most.  Whenever  a  truth  is  found  in  the  Bible 
it  should  be  accepted  not  merely  as  an  abstract  truth,  but  as 
a  part  of  the  inner  life  to  find  expression  in  conduct. 

In  this  wise  the  present  writer  would  answer  the  inquiry, 
how  to  study  the  Bible,  and  he  is  convinced  that  if  the 
student  brings  to  the  Bible  the  right  method  and  the  right 
spirit,  God  will  say  to  him,  in  the  words  of  the  four  and 
twenty  elders  before  the  throne  of  God,  "Thou  art  worthy 
to  take  the  Book  and  open  the  seals  thereof." 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  meaning  of  study. 

The  study  of  the  Bible  as  literature. 

The  devotional  study  of  the  Bible. 

Dangers  of  unsystematic  study. 

Methods  of  Bible  Study:  Topical;  biographical;  by  books* 

The  critical  method. 

The  right  spirit  in  Bible  study. 


Bibliography : 

Moulton,  "The  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible." 
Trumbull,  "Hints  on  Bible  Study." 
Sell,  "Bible  Study  by  Books." 
Smyth,  "How  to  Read  the  Bible." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  study  of  some  one  book  according  to  the  suggestions 

of  paragraph  five. 

2.  The  historical  criticism. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  are  the  dangers  of  poor  methods  of  Bible  study? 

2.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  topical  study. 

3.  The  best  general  method  of  Bible  study. 

4.  Elements  of  the  right  spirit  in  Bible  study. 


PART  II 

THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 
BY  F.  C.  EISELEN 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS   OF  THE   PENTA- 
TEUCH AND  JOSHUA 

1.  The  Pentateuch.  The  first  five  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament were  called  by  the  early  Jewish  rabbis,  "The  five-fifths 
of  the  Law."  Following  this  custom,  early  Christian  writers, 
beginning  with  Tertullian  and  Origen,  called  the  collection 
consisting  of  the  five  books  "Pentateuch,"  which  means  "the 
five-book  treatise."  Modern  scholars  add  to  the  five  books 
in  the  Pentateuch  the  Book  of  Joshua,  because  "its  contents, 
and  still  more,  its' literary  structure,  show  that  it  is  intimately 
connected  with  the  Pentateuch  and  describes  the  final  stage 
in  the  history  of  the  Origines  of  the  Hebrew  nation."  Hence 
it  has  become  customary  to  speak  of  the  first  six  books  of 
the  Bible — Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuteron- 
omy, and  Joshua — as  the  "Hexateuch,"  that  is,  "the  six-book 
treatise." 

The  historical  portions  of  the  Hexateuch  cover  the  period 
beginning  with  the  creation  of  the  world  and  ending  with  the 
settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan.  This  period  may  be  divided 
into  three  epochs:  (i)  The  beginning  of  all  things,  Gen. 
1:1 — 11:9;  (2)  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  Gen.  11:10 — 50:26; 
(3^  the  organization  of  Israel  as  a  nation  and  its  settlement 
in  Canaan,  the  historical  sections  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Num- 
bers, Deuteronomy,  and  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

The  Pentateuch  contains  material  taken  from  different 
sources  which  the  author  had  before  him  in  written  form. 
These  documents  probably  did  not  reach  their  final  form  un- 
til some  time  subsequent  to  Moses,  but  all  of  them  contained 

59 


3o  THu  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

ancient  material,  much  of  it  going  back  to  the  time  of  Moses, 
some  of  it  even  to  pre-Mosaic  days.  Hence  it  is  quite  proper 
to  associate  the  name  of  Moses  with  the  Pentateuch,  because, 
first,  he  was  the  author  and  originator  of  the  movement  and 
impulse  which  culminated  in  the  Pentateuch ;  and  second, 
the  historical,  religious,  and  ethical  development  reflected  in 
the  Pentateuch  progressed  in  the  spirit  of  Moses  and  along 
the  lines  laid  down  by  him. 

The  chronology  of  the  Old  Testament  offers  very  perplex- 
ing problems,  especially  with  reference  to  the  period  covered 
in  this  chapter.  Archbishop  Ussher  placed  creation  at  4004 
B.  C,  but  modern  research  has  compelled  us  to  push  this 
date  back,  though  it  may  be  uncertain  just  how  far.  Not 
until  the  age  of  Abraham  does  Bible  chronology  reach  any 
sort  of  firm  foundation.  If  Abraham  was  the  contemporary 
of  Hammurabi,  the  great  king  of  Babylon,  as  is  suggested  in 
Gen.  14 :  i,  his  date  is  approximately  2000  B.  C. ;  the  descent 
into  Egypt  may  have  taken  place  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  the  most  probable  date  of  the  Exodus  is  about  1225  B.  C. 

a.  Contents  of  the  Book  of  Genesis.  The  name  Genesis, 
meaning  "origin"  or  "generation,"  is  derived  from  the  Septua- 
gint  translation;  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  the  book  is  designated 
by  its  first  word,  translated  in  the  English  Bible,  "In  the  be- 
ginning." Two  main  divisions  may  be  recognized:  I.  The 
beginning  of  all  things  (1:1—11:9);  H.  The  stories  of  the 
Patriarchs  ( 1 1 : 10 — 50 :  26) . 

The  first  division  falls  naturally  into  the  following  sec- 
tions : 

1.  The  creation  of  all  things   (1:1 — 2:25). 

2.  The  beginning  of  sin  (3:  1-24). 

3.  Early  growth  and  corruption  (4:1—6:8). 

(1)  The  first  murder  (4:1-16). 

(2)  The  earliest  civilization   (4:17-24). 

(3)  The  line  of  Seth  (4:25—5:32). 

(4)  The  apostate  sons  of  God  (6: 1-8). 


THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS  61 

4.  Noah  and  his  times  (6:0 — 9:29). 

(1)  The  flood  (6:9—9:17). 

(2)  Noah's  prophecy   (9:18-29). 

5.  The  origin  of  the  peoples  (10:  i — n  :p). 

(1)  The  gradual  dispersion  (10:1-32). 

(2)  The  confusion  of  tongues  (11:1-9). 

It  is  more  difficult  to  arrange  the  remaining  chapters  of 
Genesis  according  to  a  similar  system,  but  its  contents  may 
be  briefly  indicated.  The  Hebrews  possess  many  character- 
istics which  are  common  to  the  group  of  nations  known  as 
the  Semitic  race.  The  racial  relations  of  the  Hebrews  are 
briefly  indicated  in  Gen.  n :  10-26,  which  traces  the  genealogy 
of  Shem  down  to  Abraham,  whose  migration  from  Southern 
Babylonia  to  Canaan  marks  the  first  beginnings  of  the  Hebrew 
people.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  book  consists  of  nar- 
ratives centering  around  the  three  great  patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  and  of  Joseph,  the  favorite  son  of  Jacob. 
The  lives  of  these  are  narrated  with  considerable  fullness 
down  to  the  descent  into  Egypt,  with  an  account  of  which 
Genesis  closes.  The  connecting  bond  in  this  section  is  the 
promise  to  Abraham  and  the  covenant  based  upon  it  (T2: 1-3), 
the  unfolding  of  which  is  exhibited  in  the  histories  of  the 
patriarchs  and  the  rise  of  the  twelve  tribes.  The  various 
steps  in  the  development  are  connected,  and  the  interest  is 
concentrated  by  the  use  of  the  formula,  "These  are  th".  gen- 
erations of:"  Shem,  11:10;  Terah  (Abraham),  11:27;  Ish- 
mael,  25 : 12 ;  Isaac,  25 : 19 ;  Esau,  36 :  i,  9 ;  Jacob,  37 : : . 

b.  Significance  of  Genesis.  The  permanent  value  of  Gen- 
esis I  to  IT  lies  in  the  religious  teaching  of  the  chapters.  It  is 
not  in  their  knowledge  of  physical  facts  that  the  authors  were 
elevated  above  their  contemporaries,  but  in  their  knowledge 
of  God's  connection  with  these  facts.  What  good  would 
have  resulted  if  these  ancient  writers  had  proposed  new  views 
of  the  universe  which,  though  true,  were  foreign  to  the  think- 
ing of  their  contemporaries?  They  would  have  been  looked 


02  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

upon  as  madmen  and  fanatics;  people  would  have  mocked 
them  and  rejected  all  their  teaching,  both  religious  and  scien- 
tific. No  serious  loss  would  come  to  men  if  they  were  left 
a  while  longer  in  ignorance  about  matters  of  science;  but 
serious  loss  would  come  to  them  by  continuing  in  their  lower 
religious  and  ethical  beliefs  and  practices.  The  ancient  in- 
spired teachers  sought  to  rectify  the  latter,  and  they  used 
current  scientific  notions  as  vehicles  for  the  teaching  of  high 
and  lofty  religious  and  ethical  truths.  Scientifically,  there- 
fore, these  chapters  give  the  best  that  the  age  of  the  writers 
offered;  religiously  they  give  something  that  the  age  as  a 
whole  did  not  possess;  something  that  came  to  the  writers 
as  a  result  of  their  intimate  fellowship  with  God;  and  in 
this  divine  element  lie  the  significance  and  permanent  value 
of  the  narratives. 

The  one  supreme  lesson  taught  throughout  the  entire  sec- 
tion is,  "In  the  beginning  God."  The  more  important  lessons 
of  the  separate  narratives  are  briefly  summarized  by  Driver 
as  follows:  "The  narrative  of  creation  sets  forth,  in  a  series 
of  dignified  and  impressive  pictures,  the  sovereignty  of  God; 
His  priority  to  and  separation  from  all  finite,  material  nature ; 
His  purpose  to  constitute  an  ordered  cosmos,  and  gradually 
to  adapt  the  earth  to  become  the  habitation  of  living  beings; 
and  His  endowment  of  man  with  the  peculiar,  unique  pos- 
session of  self-conscious  reason,  in  virtue  of  which  he  became 
capable  of  intellectual  and  moral  life  and  is  even  able  to  know 
and  hold  communion  with  his  Maker.  In  chapters  2  and  3 
we  read,  though  again  not  in  a  historical,  but  in  a  pictorial 
and  symbolic  form,  how  man  was  once  innocent,  how  he  be- 
came conscious  of  a  moral  law;  and  how  temptation  fell 
upon  him  and  he  broke  it.  The  fall  of  man,  the  great  and 
terrible  truth,  which  history  not  less  than  individual  expe- 
rience only  too  vividly  teaches  each  one  of  us,  is  thus  im- 
pressively set  before  us.  Man,  however,  though  punished  by 
God,  is  not  forsaken  by  Him,  nor  left  in  his  long  conflict 
with  evil  without  hope  of  victory.  In  chapter  4  the  increas- 


THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS  63 

Ing  power  of  sin,  and  the  fatal  consequences  to  which,  if  un- 
checked, it  may  lead,  is  vividly  portrayed  in  the  tragic  figure 
of  Cain.  The  spirit  of  vindictiveness  and  the  brutal  triumph 
in  the  power  of  the  sword  is  personified  in  Lamech.  In  the 
narrative  of  the  flool  God's  wrath  against  sin  and  the  divine 
prerogative  of  mercy  are  alike  exemplified :  Noah  is  a  stand- 
ing illustration  of  the  truth  that  'righteousness  delivereth  from 
death/  and  God's  dealings  with  him  after  the  flood  form  a 
striking  declaration  of  the  purposes  of  grace  and  good-will 
with  which  God  regards  mankind.  The  narrative  of  the  tower 
of  Babel  emphasizes  Jehovah's  supremacy  in  the  world,  and 
teaches  how  the  self-exaltation  of  man  is  checked  by  God." 
The  permanent  religious  significance  of  the  patriarchal 
narratives  is  brought  out  in  chapter  IV.  Here  a  few  words 
may  be  added  concerning  their  historical  value.  The  later 
history  of  Israel  presupposes  a  nomadic  stage  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  people  such  as  is  described  in  Genesis  12 — 50,  and 
there  seems  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  narratives  fur- 
nish a  truthful  picture  of  the  general  conditions  in  the  patri- 
archal period.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  even  as  historical 
documents  the  partiarchal  narratives  are  of  inestimable  value. 

c.  The  Historical  Portions  of  the  Books  from  Exodus  to 
Deuteronomy.  The  closing  chapters  of  Genesis  record  how 
the  Hebrew  nomads,  after  living  in  Canaan  for  some  genera- 
tions, were  driven  by  famine  into  Egypt,  where  the  Pharaoh 
settled  them  in  Goshen,  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Nile 
Delta.  There  they  remained  in  practical  seclusion  for  many 
generations,  retaining  very  largely  their  customs  and  beliefs. 
This  period  is  passed  over  very  briefly  in  the  Book  of  Ex- 
odus, "And  the  children  of  Israel  were  fruitful,  and  increased 
abundantly,  and  multiplied,  and  waxed  exceeding  mighty; 
and  the  land  was  filled  with  them."  (Ex.  1:7.)  In  the 
course  of  time  a  new  dynasty  arose  in  Egypt,  under  which 
began  a  period  of  oppression,  from  which  the  Hebrews  were 
delivered  under  the  leadership  of  Moses  (about  1225  B.  C.). 
Exodus  I :  I— 12 : 36  portrays  the  closing  years  of  the  stay 


04  THE  WORKER  AND  KIS  BIBLE 

in  Egypt:  the  oppression,  the  history  of  Moses,  his  mission 
to  Pharaoh,  and  the  plagues  sent  upon  Egypt  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  the  release  of  the  Hebrews.  Exodus  12 : 37— 
18:27  contains  a  record  of  the  departure  from  Egypt,  the 
overthrow  of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  march  of  the  Israelites 
until  they  reached  Mount  Sinai.  The  rest  of  the  Book  of 
Exodus  records  some  of  the  events  before  Mount  Sinai,  but 
the  greater  part  is  devoted  to  an  account  of  the  giving  of  the 
Law.  The  Book  of  Leviticus  belongs  almost  exclusively  to 
the  legal  literature,  as  also  considerable  portions  of  Numbers 
and  Deuteronomy. 

The  Book  of  Numbers  carries  the  account  of  Israel's  jour- 
neyings  to  the  settlement  in  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan. 
Chapters  I — 4  contain  chiefly  the  census  taken  of  the  people 
who  came  out  of  Egypt.  Chapters  n — 19  record  the  wan- 
derings of  Israel:  the  survey  of  Canaan,  the  refusal  to  enter 
the  land,  the  march  back  to  the  wilderness,  and  various  re- 
bellions. The  period  covered  extends  from  the  second  to  the 
beginning  of  the  fortieth  year.  Chapters  20 — 24  relate  the 
events  of  the  first  ten  months  of  the  fortieth  year :  the  march 
around  Edom,  the  death  of  Aaron,  the  conquest  of  the  land 
of  thj  Amorites  and  of  Bashan,  and  the  episode  of  Balaam. 
Chapters  25 — 36  contain  much  legal  material;  the  historical 
portions  describe  the  sin  of  Baal-peor  (25),  the  second  census 
(26),  the  slaughter  of  the  Midianites  (31),  the  settlement 
east  of  the  Jordan  (32-35).  The  Book  of  Deuteronomy  con- 
sists mainly  of  addresses  to  the  people.  The  first  of  these 
( i :  i — 4 : 49)  contains  a  rehearsal  of  the  history  from  Mount 
Horeb  (Sinai)  to  the  Jordan.  Chapters  31 — 34  deal  with 
the  closing  days  of  Moses:  his  charge  to  Joshua  (31),  the 
Song  of  Moses  (32),  the  Blessing  of  Moses  (33),  the  death 
of  Moses  (34). 

2.  The  Book  of  Joshua.  The  Book  of  Joshua  takes  up 
the  narrative  near  the  point  where  Numbers  drops  it,  the 
only  intervening  event  of  importance  being  the  death  of 
Moses.  Joshua  is,  therefore,  the  direct  continuation  of  the 


THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS  65 

historical  portions  of  the  Pentateuch.  Its  contents  may  be 
briefly  indicated  as  follows:  I.  Chapters  1—12,  the  conquest 
of  Canaan;  II.  Chapters  13—22,  the  division  of  the  land 
among  the  tribes ;  III.  Chapters  23  and  24,  Joshua's  farewell 
addresses  and  an  account  of  the  death  of  Joshua  and  Eleazar. 
The  principal  events  recorded  in  the  first  division  are:  the 
preparations  for  the  conquest  (i)  ;  the  sending  of  the  spies 
to  Jericho,  and  their  reception  by  Rahab  (2)  ;  the  crossing 
of  the  Jordan  (3,  4)  ;  the  encampment  at  Gilgal  (5)  ;  the 
fall  of  Jericho  (6)  ;  the  trespass  of  Achan,  and  the  attacks 
upon  Ai  (7,  8)  ;  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites  (9)  ;  the  con- 
quest of  southern  Canaan  (10)  ;  the  conquest  of  northern 
Canaan  and  other  kings  (n,  12).  The  second  division  (13 
— 22)  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  division  of  the  land 
among  the  tribes,  and  yet  their  exact  location  can  not  be 
definitely  established.  On  the  one  hand,  the  boundaries  laid 
down  are  ideal,  and  in  many  cases  the  tribes  were  not  able 
to  conquer  the  whole  territory  allotted  to  them ;  on  the  other, 
many  of  the  localities  named  are  not  yet  identified.  Generally 
speaking,  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  range  was  oc- 
cupied by  Judah;  still  farther  to  the  south,  extending  out 
into  the  desert,  was  Simeon.  Ephraim  and  part  of  Manasseh 
were  the  dominant  power  in  the  center;  between  Ephraim 
and  Judah  the  small  but  vigorous  tribe  of  Benjamin,  little 
more  than  a  branch  of  Ephraim,  found  a  home.  The  group 
of  northern  tribes  consisted  of  Issachar,  Zebulon,  Naphtali, 
and  Asher.  Issachar  occupied  the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
Zebulon  the  rolling  hills  north  of  the  plain,  Napthali  the  nar- 
row strip  along  the  Jordan,  from  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  to 
the  Lebanon.  West  of  the  Lebanon,  between  it  and  Phoe- 
nicia, Asher  settled,  in  the  district  known  at  a  later  time  as 
Upper  Galilee.  Dan  settled  originally  on  the  southwestern 
slope  of  Mount  Ephraim,  but  the  pressure  of  the  populous 
tribe  of  Ephraim,  the  Amorites,  and  the  Philistines  compelled 
the  Danites  to  seek  a  new  home  elsewhere.  This  was  found 
in  a  retired  spot  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hermon,  at  Laish,  a 


66  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Phoenician  colony,  whose  name  was  changed  to  Dan.  Two 
tribes,  Gad  and  Reuben,  and  a  part  of  a  third,  Manasseh, 
settled  east  of  the  Jordan.  The  tribe  of  Levi  received  no 
fixed  portion. 

A  close  study  of  the  Book  of  Joshua  reveals  the  fact  that 
the  story  of  the  conquest  is  written  from  two  distinct  view- 
points :  the  one  reflected  in  chapters  i — 12,  the  other  in 
brief  notes  scattered  through  the  rest  of  the  book.  By  piec- 
ing together  the  two  accounts  we  can  construct  a  fairly  com- 
plete narrative  of  the  conquest.  After  the  death  of  Moses, 
Israel  accepted  Joshua  as  his  successor,  and  continued  on 
the  path  of  conquest.  The  Jordan  was  crossed,  and  Jericho, 
the  city  of  the  palm  trees,  won.  Gibeon,  panic-stricken,  made 
terms  with  the  invaders.  Israel,  united  under  Joshua,  won 
a  great  victory  over  a  southern  confederacy  at  Beth-horon. 
Elated  by  these  repeated  successes,  Judah  and  Simeon  broke 
loose  from  the  main  body  and  turned  southward  to  take  pos- 
session of  the  southern  portion  of  the  central  range.  Joshua, 
at  the  head  of  the  strong  house  of  Joseph,  and  followed  by 
the  tribes  which  afterward  settled  in  the  north,  burst  across 
the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  and  defeated  a  northern  confederacy 
at  the  waters  of  Merom.  The  Canaanites,  however,  after 
bending  before  the  storm,  recovered  courage,  retained  for 
some  time  possession  of  the  rich  plain,  and  compelled  the 
Israelites  to  keep  to  the  hills. 

When  the  initial  impetus  of  the  conquest  lost  its  force,  the 
Canaanites  were  still  masters  of  the  land.  Not  all  at  once, 
nor  by  the  sword  alone,  did  the  Hebrews  come  into  posses- 
sion of  their  heritage.  Peaceful  means,  such  as  intermarriage 
with  natives  and  covenants  or  treaties  with  friendly  neighbors, 
played  an  important  role  in  the  final  conquest  of  Palestine. 
In  some  sections  Canaanitish,  in  others  Israelitish,  influence 
was  the  stronger.  The  question  was,  Which  would  conquer 
in  the  end?  The  Canaanites,  with  their  superior  civilization^ 
enjoyed  a  great  advantage,  and  the  newcomers  learned  of 
them  agriculture  and  the  few  simple  arts  practiced  in  those 


THE  HISTORICAL  PORTIONS  67 

days.  But  the  problem  was  not  only  political  and  social,  it 
was  religious  as  well.  Would  the  Israelites  accept  the  re- 
ligion of  their  teachers?  If  they  did,  the  lessons  of  the  past 
would  have  to  be  repeated,  or  true  religion  would  be  lost  to 
the  world.  The  crisis  was  serious;  the  more  so  because  the 
religious  and  moral  conceptions  of  the  vast  mass  of  the  Is- 
raelites were  still  low  and,  therefore,  the  transition  to  the 
Canaanitish  ideas  was  not  very  difficult.  That  Canaan  did 
not  triumph  was  due  to  the  providentially  raised-up  leaders, 
who  emphasized  and  re-emphasized  again  and  again  the  ne- 
cessity of  maintaining  a  strong  and  living  faith  in  Jehovah, 
the  God  of  Israel. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  Pentateuch ;  meaning  of  the  word ;  the  Hexateuch ;  pe- 
riod of  history  covered. 
Contents  and  significance  of  Genesis. 

The  history  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy. 
The  Book  of  Joshua. 

Bibliography : 

Ottley,  "A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews." 

Kent,  "History  of  the  Hebrew  People." 

Hastings,  "One  Volume  Dictionary." 

Commentaries:     "Genesis,"     Bennett;     "Exodus,"     Bennett; 

"Leviticus  and  Numbers,"  Genung;   "Deuteronomy  and 

Joshua,"  Robinson. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Institutions  and  religious  ideas  of  patriarchal  times. 

2.  The  earliest  history  of  Palestine. 

3.  Canaanitish  influence  upon  Israel. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

X.  What  designation  may  best  be  used  for  the  books  treated 
in  this  chapter? 

2.  The  contents  of  Genesis. 

3.  The  real  significance  of  Genesis. 

4.  What  are  the  principal  historical  events  recorded  in   E* 

odus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy  ? 

5.  The  historical  events  of  the  Book  of  Joshua. 

6.  The  location  of  the  tribes. 

7.  The  progress  and  methods  of  the  conquest. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FHE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH 

1.  The  Origin  of  the  Legal  System  o£  the  Hebrews.  Prac- 
tically the  entire  legal  system  of  the  Hebrews  is  embodied 
in  the  Books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuter- 
onomy; outside  of  the  Pentateuch  the  most  important  piece 
of  legislation  is  Ezekiel  40—48.  Israel's  system  of  laws,  in 
all  its  aspects— ceremonial,  moral,  civil,  and  criminal — un- 
doubtedly had  its  beginning  with  Moses.  He  proclaimed  Je- 
hovah to  be  the  one  God  of  Israel,  and  Israel  to  be  the  pe- 
culiar people  of  Jehovah.  In  order  to  perpetuate  the  new 
order,  he  must  regulate  the  relation  of  the  Israelites  to  their 
God,  to  one  another,  and  to  the  nation  as  a  whole.  This 
brought  about  the  creation  or  adaptation  of  a  ceremonial  sys- 
tem, the  giving  of  certain  moral  commands,  and  the  formu- 
lation of  judicial  precepts,  which  might  govern  the  life  and 
conduct  of  the  people.  The  Mosaic  origin  of  the  legal  system 
of  the  Hebrews  is  almost  universally  admitted.  Says  Well- 
hausen:  "The  priests  derived  their  torah  [the  Hebrew  word 
meaning  law]  from  Moses :  they  claimed  only  to  preserve 
and  guard  what  Moses  had  left.  .  .  .  From  the  historical 
tradition  it  is  certain  that  Moses  was  the  founder  of  the 
torah."  So  also  Montefiore:  "Moses  .  .  .  was  unques- 
tionably the  founder  of  that  oral  teaching,  or  torah,  which 
preceded  and  became  the  basis  of  the  codes  of  the  Penta- 
teuch/' On  the  other  hand,  it  seems  equally  clear  that  the 
foundation  laid  by  Moses  was  built  upon  by  later  generations, 
in  the  spirit  of  Moses,  to  meet  the  needs  of  a  more  complex 
and  complicated  state  of  society.  This  movement,  which  con- 

6£ 


THE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  69 

tinued  through  centuries,  resulted  finally  in  the  legislative 
system  embodied  in  the  Pentateuch. 

2.  The  Several  Law  Codes  and  their  Dates.  It  is  possible 
to  distinguish  between  six  different  collections  of  laws  in  the 
Old  Testament.  Five  of  these  are  in  the  Pentateuch ;  the 
other  forms  the  closing  chapters  of  the  Book  of  Ezekiel 
(chapters  40 — 48).  The  approximate  dates  when  the  Pen- 
tateuchal  codes  are  thought  to  have  reached  their  completed 
form  are  commonly  given  as  follows : 

(1)  The  Decalogue,   in   some   form — the   days   of    Moses. 

(2)  The  Book  of  Covenant — the  period  of  the  Judges  or 

the  early  monarchy. 

(3)  The   Deuteronomic   Code — the   seventh   century,   pre- 

ceding the  reform  movement  under  Josiah. 

(4)  The  Holiness  Code — the  early  years  of  the  exile. 

(5)  The  I-riestly  Code — the  closing  years  of  the  exile  and 

the  post-exilic  period. 

(Between  4  and  5,  about  570,  would  come  the  Code  of 
Ezekiel.) 

But  while  these  are  the  periods  in  which  the  several  codes 
are  thought  to  have  reached  their  completed  literary  form,  it 
is  universally  admitted  that  all  of  them  contain  laws  much 
earlier  than  the  codes  as  a  whole,  some  of  them  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Moses ;  and  some  of  the  more  extensive  codes 
are  thought  to  embody  entire  collections  made  at  an  earlier 
time. 

The  entire  system  in  its  present  form  is  known  among 
Jews  and  Christians  as  the  Law  of  Moses.  If  this  system 
reached  its  final  form  by  the  steps  just  indicated,  Moses  can 
not  be  considered  the  author  of  all  the  separate  laws  con- 
tained in  the  various  codes;  and  yet  "Law  of  Moses"  is  not 
a  misnomer;  for  it  was  Moses  who  called  the  Hebrew  na- 
tion into  being;  it  was  he  who  inspired  his  contemporaries 
and  later  generations  with  lofty  moral  and  religious  ideals; 


7c  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

it  was  he  who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Hebrew  legal  system 
in  all  its  various  aspects.  The  work  of  the  later  prophets, 
priests,  and  lawgivers  was  carried  on  in  the  spirit  of  Moses 
and  along  the  lines  laid  down  by  him  as  the  first  great  prophet 
of  Israel,  who  "talked  with  God  face  to  face." 

a.  The  Decalogue.  The  code  commonly  called  the  Deca- 
logue appears  in  two  recensions,  differing  in  details,  in  Ex- 
odus 20  and  Deuteronomy  5.  In  both  cases  some  of  the 
commandments  are  expanded  by  certain  hortatory  additions. 
The  legal  requirements  proper  are  as  follows: 

(1)  Thou  shalt  have  no  other  gods  before  Me. 

(2)  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  a  graven  image. 

(3)  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  Jehovah,  thy  God, 

in  vain. 

(4)  Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy. 

(5)  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother. 

(6)  Thou  shalt  do  no  murder. 

(7)  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery. 

(8)  Thou  shalt  not  steal. 

(9)  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness. 

(10)  Thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  wife. 

These  ten  commandments  may  be  divided  into  two  tables 
of  five  precepts  each,  the  -first  five  regulating  the  attitude  of 
the  people  toward  Jehovah  and  towards  parents,  who  to  chil- 
dren stand  in  the  place  of  God,  The  other  five,  the  attitude 
toward  their  fellow  Israelites. 

Concerning  the  character  and  permanent  significance  of 
this  code,  it  has  been  well  said :  "The  marvelous  perfection 
of  this  summary  of  moral  law,  its  intrinsic  excellency,  the  uni- 
versal applicability  of  its  several  precepts,  and  their  abiding 
and  unchanging  nature,  place  these  commandments  in  ad- 
vance of  anything  to  be  found  elsewhere  in  the  annals  of 
human  legislation.  They  are  a  summary  of  divine  revela- 
tion so  absolutely  fundamental  and  comprehensive  that  on 
them  hang  all  the  law  and  the  prophets.  They  are  grounded 


THE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  71 

m  the  very  nature  of  man  as  a  moral  being,  and  take  due 
cognizance  of  his  essential  relations  to  God  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  his  fellows  on  the  other." 

b.  The   Book   of   the   Covenant.     It   is   unthinkable   that 
Moses  settled  all  disputes  brought  before  him  simply  by  ap- 
pealing to  the  Decalogue.     He  must  have  made  his  decisions 
more  specific.     That  at  least  some  of  these  decisions  were 
written  down  for  the  guidance  of  future  generations  seems 
quite  probable.     The  Book  of  the  Covenant  appears  to  be  a 
collection  o£  such  decisions  somewhat  expanded  and  modified 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people  after  the  settlement  in  Canaan. 

The  Book  of  Covenant  extends  from  Exodus  20 : 22 — 
23:  19.  Its  laws  deal  with  a  variety  of  subjects,  and  it  re- 
quires considerable  adjustment  to  make  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment possible.  Originally  the  whole  book  may  have  been  ar- 
ranged on  the  principle  of  the  Decalogue,  in  the  sense  that  it 
contained  ten  separate  decalogues,  each  containing  two  groups 
of  five  laws.  Corresponding  to  the  two  tables,  the  Book  of 
the  Covenant  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  of  laws,  each 
consisting  of  five  decalogues:  (i)  Judgments  dealing  with 
civil  and  criminal  cases ;  (2)  Religious  and  humane  laws. 
The  five  decalogues  of  the  first  group  are  not  difficult  to  re- 
construct ;  of  the  second  group  only  four  exist,  though  traces 
of  the  fifth  appear.  The  collection  of  Judgments  deals  with 
the  following  subjects:  (i)  The  rights  of  slaves  (21:2-11); 
(2)  Assaults  (21 :  12-27)  5  (3)  Laws  regarding  domestic  ani- 
mals (21:28-36;  23:1,  4);  (4)  Responsibility  for  property 
(22:5-15)  ;  (5)  Social  Purity  (22:  16-20).  The  Religious  and 
Humane  Laws  deal  with  (i)  Kindness  (22:2,  3,  6,  7,  21-27; 
23:4,  5);  (2)  Justice  (23:1-3,  6-8);  (3)  Duties  to  God 
(20:23-26;  22:28-31);  (4)  Sacred  Seasons  (23:10-19). 

c.  The  Deuteronomic  Code.     The  laws  of  Deuteronomy 
do  not  represent  a  break  with  Israel's  earlier  legislation,  but 
rather  an  extension  and   development   in  the   spirit   of  the 
eighth-century  prophets.     Three-fourths  of  the  laws   in   the 
earlier  codes  are  reproduced,  in  some  form,  in  Deuteronomy. 


72  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

The  omission  of  the  others  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the 
purpose  of  the  new  code.  It  was  intended  for  popular  use, 
while  the  omitted  laws  were  primarily  for  the  guidance  of 
the  judges.  The  reasons  for  the  alterations  of  more  ancient 
laws,  and  the  addition  of  new  ones,  are  to  be  traced  to  the 
change  in  political,  social  and  religious  conditions,  and  to  the 
teaching  of  the  eighth-century  prophets.  The  spirit  of  Deu- 
teronomy is  prophetic.  Service  is  ever  placed  above  sacrifice. 
To  love  and  to  serve  Jehovah  and  one's  fellows  with  all  the 
heart  and  soul  is  fts  supreme  demand.  The  detailed  laws  are 
presented  simply  as  means  by  which  this  love  may  find  ex- 
pression. 

In  its  present  form  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy  consists 
aside  from  the  introductory  historical  section  (i — 4)  and 
the  farewell  speeches,  exhortations,  and  blessings  (27 — 34), 
of  several  rather  loosely  defined  groups  of  laws :  I.  The  pro- 
phetic decalogue,  followed  by  a  series  of  exhortations  based 
chiefly  on  the  first  command  (5 — n).  2.  Ceremonial  and 
religious  laws  (12:1 — 17:7).  3.  Appointment  and  duties  of 
the  officials  in  the  divinely  ruled  commonwealth — judges, 
kings,  priests,  and  prophets  (17:8 — 18:22).  4.  Criminal 
laws  (19:1-21 — 21:1-9).  5.  Military  laws  to  be  observed, 
in  case  of  war  (20:1-20;  21:10-14).  6.  A  miscellaneous 
collection  of  civil,  criminal,  humane,  and  religious  laws,  many 
of  which  are  closely  related  to  those  in  the  other  groups 
(21:15—25:19).  7.  Presentation  of  the  firstborn  and  the 
triennial  tithe  (26:1-19). 

d.  The  Law  of  Holiness.  The  so-called  Law  of  Holiness 
is  contained  in  Leviticus  17  to  26.  The  code  derives  its  mod- 
ern name  from  the  fact  that  its  central  idea  is  holiness,  both 
moral  and  ceremonial.  "Ye  shall  obey  My  commands  and 
do  them:  I  am  Jehovah.  And  ye  shall  not  profane  My  holy 
name;  but  I  will  be  treated  as  holy  among  the  Israelites.  I 
am  Jehovah,  who  makejh  you  holy,  who  brought  you  out 
of  the  land  of  Egypt  to  be  your  God :  I  am  Jehovah."  (Lev. 
22:31-33-) 


THE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  73 

The  Law  of  Holiness  deals  with  a  variety  of  topics.  It 
is  noteworthy,  however,  that  it  lays  much  less  stress  upon 
civil  and  criminal  legislation  than  upon  moral  and  ceremonial 
requirements.  Some  of  the  more  important  subjects  are:  The 
slaughter  of  animals  and  sacrifice  (17)  ;  unchastity  and  Mo- 
loch worship  (18)  ;  the  religious  and  moral  behavior  of  the 
Israelites  (19)  ;  penalties  enjoined  for  Moloch  worship,  un- 
lawful marriage,  and  other  offenses  (20)  ;  regulations  touch- 
ing priests  and  offerings  (21,  22)  ;  the  sacred  seasons  (23)  ; 
the  lights  of  the  sanctuary,  the  showbread,  the  blasphemer 
and  his  punishment  (24)  ;  the  Sabbatic  year  and  the  year  of 
jubilee  (25).  The  code  closes  with  a  hortatory  address,  em- 
phasizing the  fundamental  duty  of  loyalty  to  Jehovah  and 
His  commands  (26).  In  Leviticus  19:18,  "Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbor  as  thyself,"  the  Old  Testament  legislation 
reaches  its  noblest  expression. 

e.  The  Priestly  Code.  The  so-called  Priestly  Code  is 
found  chiefly  in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers.  The  un- 
derlying thought  of  the  code  is  that  Israel  is  called  to  be  a 
holy  people,  sanctified  by  the  presence  of  Jehovah  in  its  midst. 
The  nation  is  treated  as  a  Church  living  only  for  the  service 
of  God,  and  the  whole  legislation  is  intended  to  maintain  the 
proper  relation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel,  or,  if  it  should 
be  broken  in  any  way,  to  restore  it.  This  is  also  the  aim  of 
the  other  codes,  but  the  priestly  code  differs  from  them  in  its 
marked  emphasis  upon  the  external  forms  and  ceremonial 
practices  of  religion.  The  following  brief  outline  will  sug- 
gest the  characteristic  requirements  of  the  code.: 

The  law  of  circumcision   (Gen.  17). 

The  law  of  the  Passover  (Ex.  12). 

The  tabernacle  and  its  furniture;  the  dress  and  consecra- 
tion of  the  priests;  the  law  of  the  daily  burnt  offering, 
etc.  (Ex.  25—31;  35—40. 

The  ritual  of  various  sacrifices  (Lev.  i:  i — 6:7). 

Regulations  relating  to  the  priests,  their  dress,  perquisite^ 
etc.  (Lev.  6 :  8 — 10 :  20). 


74  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Laws  of  purification  and  atonement   (Lev.   n — 16;  Num. 

The  commendation  of  tithes  and  vows  (Lev.  27;  Num.  30). 

I,aw  of  Nazarites  (Num.  6). 

Duties,  revenues,  distribution  of  the  tithes  appointed  for 
priests  and  Levites  (Num.  18)  ;  concerning  Levitical 
cities  (Num.  35:  1-8). 

Miscellaneous  laws,  some  supplementary,  some  intended  to 
harmonize  various  passages  in  the  completed  code,  some 
dealing  with  civil  matters;  for  example,  the  law  of  in- 
heritance for  daughters  (Num.  27:1-11);  the  distribu- 
tion of  spoil  taken  in  war  (Num.  31 : 21-30)  ;  the  law 
relating  to  homicide,  and  the  appointment  of  the  cities 
of  refuge.  (Num.  35:9-34)- 

As  long  as  the  religious  leaders  retained  the  prophetic 
spirit  and  moral  fervor,  this  legal  system,  with  all  its  empha- 
sis on  form,  might  serve  as  a  means  of  religious  education. 
It  might  help  to  "develop  and  deepen  the  sense  of  sin  and  to 
awaken  in  devout  souls  religious  affections :  trust,  devotion, 
self-surrender,  thankful  love,  the  longing  for  divine  grace." 
On  the  other  hand,  it  would  stand  as  a  constant  danger  to 
spiritual  religion.  How  easy  it  would  be  to  be  satisfied  with 
a  merely  external  standard  of  religion,  to  drift  into  a  spirit 
of  formalism,  to  confuse  ceremonial  holiness  with  moral 
purity !  Unfortunately,  later  generations  yielded  to  these  dan- 
gers, and  Judaism  became  a  mere  form,  without  power  and 
life.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  in  the  Canon 
of  Sacred  Scripture  the  priestly  code  never  had  an  independ- 
ent existence.  In  the  other  collections  of  laws  the  broader 
duties  of  humanity,  justice,  and  morality  were  insisted  upon, 
and  they  were  adapted  to  train  a  righteous  and  God-fearing 
nation.  Hence,  had  the  later  Jews  so  desired,  they  might 
have  known  the  things  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God.  Their 
failure  was  due  not  to  neglectfulness  on  the  part  of  the  Divine 
Providence,  but  rather  on  the  part  of  the  Jewish  community. 


THE  LEGAL  PORTIONS  75 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  origin  of  the  Hebrew  legal  system. 

The  several  law  codes :  approximate  dates,  origin,  and  expo- 
sition of  each. 


Bibliography : 

Kent,  "Israel's  Laws  and  Legal  Precedents." 

Terry,  ''Moses  and  the  Prophets." 

Hastings,    "Bible    Dictionary,"    Article    Law. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  character  and  influence  of  the  Decalogue. 

2.  The   significance   of  the   Deuteronomic   Code. 

3.  The  origin  and  development  of  the  Ceremonial  Law. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  The  significance  of  the  term,  "the  Laws  of  Moses,* 

2.  What  is  the  Decalogue  ? 

3.  Explain  the  origin  of  the  Book  of  the  Covenant 

4.  The  spirit  and  content  of  the  Deuteronomic  Code. 

5.  The  chief  subjects  of  the  Law  of  Holiness. 

6.  The  distinctive  features  of  the  Priestly  Code. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE   JUDGES   AND  THE   UNITED  MONARCHY 

i.  The  Books  of  Judges  and  Ruth.  The  principal  sources 
of  information  for  the  period  of  the  Judges  are  the  Books 
of  Judges  and  Ruth  and  I  Sau.iel  i — 12.  The  Book  of 
Judges  consists  of  three  well-defined  portions :  I.  An  Intro- 
duction, I :  I — 3 : 6,  presenting  a  view  of  conditions  in  Pal- 
estine at  the  time  the  period  of  the  Judges  begins;  II.  The 
History  of  the  Judges,  3:7 — 16:31;  III.  An  Appendix, 
17 — 21,  describing  in  detail  two  incidents  belonging  to  this 
period:  (i)  The  migration  of  the  tribe  of  Dan  (17,  18)  ; 
(2)  The  outrage  at  Gibeah,  and  its  consequences  (19 — 21). 
The  main  part  of  the  book  consists  of  a  series  of  older  nar- 
ratives, fitted  into  a  framework  by  a  later  editor,  and  pro- 
vided by  him,  where  necessary,  with  introductory  and  con- 
cluding comments.  The  work  of  the  editor  appears  most 
prominently  in  the  ever-recurring  formula,  "The  children  of 
Israel  did  evil  .  .  .  He  gave  them  into  the  hands  of 
.  .  .  They  cried  unto  Jehovah  .  .  .  He  raised  up  a 
deliverer."  The  older  sources  furnished  him  a  knowledge 
of  the  events  of  history.  The  question  arose  in  his  mind, 
What  is  the  explanation  of  the  several  ups  and  downs  ?  Upon 
the  basis  of  a  powerful  faith  in  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel, 
he  supplies  the  answer  in  the  formula  quoted.  The  Book  of 
Judges,  therefore,  is  not  simply  a  record  of  historical  events, 
but  a  record  plus  an  interpretation. 

The  Book  of  Ruth,  which  follows  Judges  in  the  English 
Bible,  takes  us  to  a  period  about  a  century  before  the  time 
of  David.  It  narrates  how  Elimelech  of  Bethlehem,  his  wife, 

76 


THE  JUDGES— THE  UNITED  MONARCHY        77 

Naomi,  and  his  two  sons,  Mahlon  and  Chilion,  went  to  live 
in  the  land  of  Moab.  The  father  dies,  and  the  two  sons 
marry  Moabitish  wives,  Orpah  and  Ruth.  After  a  while 
Mahlon  and  Chilion  die,  which  leaves  Naomi  alone  with  her 
two  daughters-in-law.  She  decides  to  return  to  Bethlehem, 
and  Ruth  insists  on  accompanying  her  (i).  The  remaining 
three  chapters  narrate  how  in  Bethlehem  Ruth  makes  the 
acquaintance  of  her  kinsman  Boaz,  who  in  the  end  marries 
her.  A  son  is  born  to  them,  Obed,  the  father  of  Jesse,  who 
became  the  father  of  David.  The  narrative  affords  an  idyllic 
glance  of  home  life  in  Israel  during  the  period  of  the  Judges. 
The  genealogy  at  the  close  suggests  the  probable  purpose  of 
the  book.  The  Books  of  Samuel  simply  give  the  names  of 
David's  father  and  brothers;  Ruth  is  intended  to  throw  addi- 
tional light  on  his  ancestry. 

2.  The  Judges  and  their  Work.  The  Judges  whose  ex- 
ploits the  book  records  are  thirteen  in  number,  or,  if  Abime- 
lech,  who  is  not  termed  a  Judge,  be  omitted,  twelve :  Othniel 
(3:7-n)»  Ehud  (3:12-30),  Shamgar  (3:31),  Barak  and 
Deborah  (4,  5),  Gideon  (6:1—8:32),  Abimelech  (8:33 — 
9:57),  Tola  (10:1,  2),  Jair  (10:3-5),  Jephthah  (10:6— 
12:  7),  Ibzan  (12:  8-10),  Elon  (12:  II,  12),  Abdon  (12:  13-15), 
Samson  (13 — 16).  Shamgar,  Tola,  Jair,  Ibzan,  Elon,  and" 
Abdon,  to  whose  exploits  but  little  space  is  devoted,  are  some- 
times called  Minor  Judges. 

The  term  Judges  as  applied  to  the  leaders  of  this  period  is 
in  a  sense  a  misnomer.  Deliverer,  or  savior,  the  designation 
found  in  the  most  ancient  narratives,  describes  their  charac- 
ter and  function  more  accurately.  The  men  were  brought 
to  the  front  by  the  necessities  of  the  age.  A  common  danger, 
most  frequently  an  invasion,  threatened  a  town  or  tribe.  In 
such  a  crisis  some  man  of  superior  courage,  energy,  or  wis- 
dom arose  and,  rallying  his  tribesmen,  led  them  to  victory. 
Having  demonstrated  his  ability  to  command  and  to  act,  he 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  natural  leader  in  crises  of  a  sim- 
i^ar  character;  but  his  authority  was  not  derived  from  any 


78  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

constitutional  provision;  it  was  for  the  time  being  delegated 
voluntarily  by  the  people  under  the  pressure  of  a  common 
need.  But  in  that  turbulent  and  chaotic  age  differences  fre- 
quently arose  between  individuals  and  even  whole  clans,  and 
these,  under  the  dominion  of  blood  revenge,  led  at  times  to 
serious  and  disastrous  consequences.  This  condition  of  af- 
fairs would  make  the  need  of  an  arbiter,  whose  wisdom  and 
authority  both  parties  would  respect,  strongly  felt.  In  the 
nature  of  the  case  difficulties  of  this  sort  were  frequently  re- 
ferred for  settlement  to  these  victorious  champions.  It  is  this 
fact  which  led  later  writers  to  call  the  local  chieftains  and 
•deliverers  by  the  name  Judges. 

a.  Conditions  in  Palestine  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Period 
of  the  Judges.  When  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan  they 
found  a  thickly  populated  land.  Agriculture  was  the  princi- 
pal occupation,  and  the  inhabitants  had  attained  a  fairly  high 
degree  of  civilization.  Scattered  throughout  the  land  were 
strong  cities,  which  only  a  short  time  before  had  been  garri- 
soned by  Egyptian  soldiers,  but  Egypt  had  lost  its  hold,  and 
the  land  was  in  political  confusion.  This  state  of  things  made 
it  comparatively  easy  for  the  Hebrews  to  secure  a  foothold ;  it 
was  a  much  more  difficult  task  to  take  possession  of  the  whole 
land.  True,  peaceful  assimilation  played  an  important  role 
in  the  final  conquest,  but  for  the  most  part  the  Canaanites  did 
not  surrender  without  the  most  desperate  struggles.  Again 
and  again  they  threatened  the  invaders ;  at  other  times  Israel 
was  attacked  by  outside  nations  that  sought  to  take  for  them- 
selves the  more  desirable  districts  of  Palestine.  The  Book 
of  Judges  and  the  first  twelve  chapters  of  First  Samuel  de- 
scribe the  struggles  leading  to  the  final  conquest. 

b.  The  Several  Crises  during  the  Period  of  the  Judges. 
The  period  of  the  Judges  extends  from  the  death  of  Joshua 
to  the  anointing  of  Saul  as  king  over  Israel.  Its  exact  length 
can  not  be  determined ;  from  the  available  evidence  it  would 
seem  that  it  was  somewhat  less  than  two  centuries.  During 


THE  JUDGES— THE  UNITED  MONARCHY        79 

these  years  six  more  or  less  serious  crises  arose,  each  of 
which  called  forth  a  deliverer.  I.  The  first  of  the  judges, 
Othniel,  delivered  Israel  from  a  Mesopotamian  king,  whose 
name  is  not  given,  but  who  is  called  Cushan-rishathafmk 
which  means,  the  Cushite  of  double  wickedness.  2.  Ehud,  of 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  did  his  work  in  the  south.  Eglon,  the 
king  of  Moab,  had  seized  the  city  of  Jericho,  and  imposed 
tribute  upon  the  adjacent  territory.  Ehud  treacherously  slew 
the  king  and,  summoning  the  Ephraimites,  succeeded  in  driv— 
ing  the  Moabites  across  the  Jordan.  3.  Meanwhile,  the  en- 
ergy of  the  Israelites  in  the  north  was  expended  in  seeking 
to  conquer  the  land,  but  they  were  not  altogether  successfuL 
In  the  course  of  time  the  natives  prevailed  against  the  new- 
comers, and  the  Israelites  were  threatened  with  complete  sub- 
jugation. In  this  crisis  Deborah,  the  prophetess,  and  Barak, 
of  Kadesh  Napthali,  summoned  the  Israelitish  forces  to  "come 
to  the  help  of  Jehovah  against  the  mighty."  The  battle  with 
the  Canaanites  was  fought  in  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon,  and 
ended  in  a  decisive  victory  for  Israel.  The  power  of  the 
Canaanites  was  forever  broken,  and  Central  Palestine  was 
thrown  open  to  the  immigrants.  4.  Soon  a  new  danger  threat- 
ened, this  time  from  the  east.  Midianites  began  to  cross  the 
Jordan,  and  in  a  short  time  the  Israelites,  especially  the  tribes 
of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  were  reduced  to  galling  serfdom, 
From  Manasseh  arose  the  deliverer  in  the  person  of  a  brave, 
patriotic,  God-fearing  farmer,  by  the  name  of  Gideon.  So 
great  was  the  gratitude  of  the  Israelites  that  they  offered  to 
make  Gideon  king,  but  Gideon  declined  the  honor.  However,, 
after  his  death,  Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon  and  a  Canaan- 
itish  woman,  secured  the  kingship,  after  slaying  all  the  other- 
sons  of  Gideon  but  one.  The  rule  of  Abimelech  proved  dis- 
astrous and  soon  came  to  an  ignominious  end.  5.  The  next 
crisis  was  caused  by  the  Ammonites,  another  East  Jordan  peo- 
ple. They  took  advantage  of  the  unsettled  conditions  in  Is- 
rael, and  seized  the  Israelite  territory  east  of  the  Jordan.  In' 
time  they  began  to  cross  the  Jordan,  and  the  Israelites,  with-- 


80  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

t>ut  a  competent  leader,  were  worsted.  Finally  they  called  to 
their  aid  Jephthah,  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  who  defeated  the 
Ammonites  and  dislodged  them  from  all  the  Israelite  terri- 
tory. 6.  The  sixth  and  severest  crisis  was  caused  by  the 
Philistines  in  the -southwest.  The  Book  of  Judges  describes 
the  exploits  of  Shamgar  and  Samson  against  the  Philistines, 
but  their  deeds  of  personal  daring  were  without  permanent 
results.  The  struggles  continued  for  several  centuries,  and 
ended  in  the  complete  triumph  of  Israel. 

3.  The  Books  of  Samuel  and  Kings.  The  events  leading 
to  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy  and  the  history  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  recorded  in  the  Books  of  Samuel  and 
i  Kings  I — ii.  In  both  Samuel  and  Kings  earlier  and  later 
strata  may  be  distinguished.  Evidently  older  material  was 
taken  by  a  later  compiler  and  embodied  by  him  into  the  pres- 
ent books,  he  supplying  at  the  same  time  such  connecting 
links  as  were  needed  in  order  to  make  a  continuous  nar- 
rative. 

The  narratives  center  around  the  great  personalities  of 
the  age.  In  I  Samuel  I — 7  Eli  and  Samuel  are  the  chief 
characters ;  in  chapters  8 — 14,  Samuel  and  Saul ;  in  chapters 
15 — 31,  Saul  and  David.  From  the  time  David  appears 
upon  the  scene  the  sympathies  of  the  writer  are  largely  with 
him.  The  central  figure  of  Second  Samuel  is  David.  Chap- 
ters i — 7  record  the  successive  steps  by  which  David  came 
to  the  throne  of  all  Israel,  his  capture  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
transference  thither  of  the  ark.  Chapter  8  epitomizes  his 
public  acts,  bringing  his  history  to  a  close.  It  anticipates 
events  which  are  described  more  fully  in  the  succeeding  sec- 
tion. Chapters  9 — 20  report  in  greater  detail  events  in 
David's  private  and  court  life.  The  remaining  chapters,  21 
—24,  constitute  an  appendix,  consisting  in  part  of  extracts 
from  old  records  of  the  reign  of  David,  in  part  of  lists  of 
David's  heroes  and  their  deeds,  and  in  part  of  poetical  ma- 
terial assigned  to  David.  The  history  of  David  is  concluded 
and  that  of  Solomon  introduced  in  i  Kings  i,  2.  Subsequent 


THE  JUDGES— THE  UNITED  MONARCHY        81 

events  in  Solomon's  reign  are  recorded  in  chapters  3 — II, 
special  stress  being  laid  upon  the  building  and  dedication  of 
the  temple. 

4.   Events  Leading  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Monarchy. 

The  struggles  with  the  Philistines  brought  Israel  to  the  verge 
of  destruction.  The  case  seemed  absolutely  hopeless  after 
the  decisive  victory  of  the  Philistines  at  Aphek  (i  Sam.  4), 
when  Jehovah  Himself  seemed  unable  to  stem  the  tide  against 
his  chosen  people.  The  defeat  of  Israel  involved  a  twofold 
danger:  (i)  political,  (2)  religious.  The  Hebrew  armies 
were  demoralized,  and  there  was  nothing  to  prevent  the  Phil- 
istines from  overrunning  and  annexing  the  entire  Israelite 
territory,  which  would  mean  to  Israel  the  loss  of  political  in- 
dependence. More  serious  even  was  the  religious  danger.  At 
Aphek  Israel  had  put  its  trust  in  Jehovah.  The  people  had 
sent  for  the  ark,  the  external  symbol  of  the  divine  presence, 
believing  that  with  Jehovah  in  their  midst  defeat  would  be 
impossible.  The  battle  went  against  them;  apparfntly  Je- 
hovah had  failed  them,  or  else  the  gods  of  the  Philistines 
were  stronger  than  He.  In  either  case  the  question  would 
arise,  Is  it  worth  while  to  serve  Him  if  He  is  unable  or  un- 
willing to  help? 

One  man,  Samuel,  saw  the  need  of  the  hour.  He  realized 
that  if  the  religion  of  Jehovah  and  the  national  life  were  to 
be  preserved,  two  things  were  needed:  (i)  a  more  com- 
plete union  of  the  different  clans  and  tribes,  (2)  a  leader  who 
could  command  and  inspire  men.  Experience  taught  that  the 
former  could  be  secured  only  through  emphasizing  the  re- 
ligious bond,  which  bound  the  heterogeneous  elements  to- 
gether in  the  beginning;  hence  Samuel,  assisted  by  the  sons 
of  the  prophets,  sought  to  recall  the  people  to  Jehovah.  It 
carne  also  to  be  seen  that  to  cement  and  maintain  the  union 
a  more  permanent  form  of  government  needed  to  be  estab- 
lished; and  as  the  kingship  was  the  form  adopted  by  Israel's 
neighbors,  the  attention  naturally  turned  in  that  direction. 
Moreover,  Samuel  found  a  man  who,  he  thought,  possessed 


82  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

qualities  of  leadership  and  promised  to  be  the  proper  person 
to  inaugurate  the  new  form  of  government.  Him  Samuel 
anointed  king;  and  when  Saul  had  given  evidence  of  his 
bravery  at  Jabesh-Gilead  he  was  made  king  (1037  B.  C). 

5.   The  United  Monarchy. 

a.  King  Saul  and  His  Reign.  After  his  election  Saul  was 
compelled,  first  of  all,  to  win  his  country  from  the  Philistines. 
In  part  he  was  successful  in  this  attempt ;  however,  the  strug- 
gles continued  during  his  entire  reign  and  finally  cost  him 
his  life.  Of  other  wars  the  expedition  against  Amalek  re- 
ceives special  mention,  because  of  its  important  bearing  upon 
the  subsequent  career  of  the  king. 

The  narratives  centering  around  Saul  deal  more  exten- 
sively with  events  touching  his  personal  life  than  with  his 
wars,  and  on  the  whole  Saul  appears  in  an  unfavorable  light. 
At  first  he  had  the  hearty  support  of  Samuel,  but  soon  dif- 
ferences arose  which  in  the  end  led  to  a  complete  break. 
Samuel  was  the  representative  of  the  religious-national  classs 
Saul  of  the  military-political  party.  The  constant  military  ac- 
tivities of  Saul  were  not  conducive  to  the  development  of  the 
finer  qualities  of  the  king,  and  soon  it  became  evident  that, 
whatever  the  good  points  in  his  character  and  person,  he  failed 
to  appreciate  the  spiritual  and  ethical  conceptions  of  SamueL 
As  a  result  the  latter  became  convinced  that  Saul  was  not 
the  man  to  lead  Israel  so  that  it  could  fulfill  its  God-given 
mission  to  mankind ;  he  broke  permanently  with  the  king  and 
selected  as  his  successor  one  who  was  more  in  accord  with 
the  ideals  represented  by  the  religion  of  Jehovah. 

The  breach  with  Samuel  caused  Saul  to  lose  the  support 
of  the  best  elements  in  the  nation.  This  made  the  king 
morose  and  melancholy.  To  cheer  him  the  lad  David,  skilled 
in  music,  was  brought  to  the  court.  He  soon  won  the  hearts 
of  all,  including  the  king's  daughter.  He  also  distinguished 
himself  in  war.  These  successes  made  Saul  insanely  jealous, 
and  he  determined  to  slay  David.  The  latter  was  finally  com- 
pelled to  flee  from  the  court;  on  several  occasions  his  life 


THE  JUDGES— THE  UNITED  MONARCHY       83 

was  threatened,  but  when  Saul  fell  into  his  power  he  mag- 
nanimously spared  him.  Weary  of  his  wanderings,  he  at  last 
fled  to  the  Philistines,  where  he  would  be  safe  from  the  king's 
attack.  Soon  the  Philistines,  encouraged  by  the  presence  with 
them  of  the  brave  Israelite  hero,  made  a  new  attack  upon 
Israel  The  battle  took  place  at  Mount  Gilboa,  and  in  the 
engagement,  which  proved  disastrous  to  Israel,  Saul  commit- 
ted suicide. 

Though  on  the  whole  SauJ  proved  a  failure,  it  is  not  fair 
to  overlook  the  good  points  in  his  character.  The  record  pic- 
tures him  as  a  simple-minded,  impulsive,  courageous  warrior, 
and  loyal  patriot;  but  he  was  deficient  in  the  maturer  quali- 
ties demanded  by  his  position,  executive  ability,  tact,  the 
power  of  organization,  and,  above  all,  patience  and  persist- 
ency. In  addition,  and  this  was  the  most  seridus  defect  in 
a  king  of  Israel,  he  was  unable  to  understand  and  appreciate 
the  higher  religious  experiences  and  ideals  which  enlightened 
souls  like  Samuel  were  beginning  to  possess  and  without 
which  he  could  never  be  an  ideal  representative  of  Jehovah 
upon  the  throne  of  Israel. 

b.  King  David  and  His  Reign.  As  soon  as  the  news  of 
Saul's  death  spread,  the  elders  and  ptincipal  men  of  Judah 
made  David  their  king.  For  about  seven  years  he  was  king 
of  Judah  only,  while  Ishbaal,  a  son  of  Saul,  was  kfng  over 
a  small  kingdom  in  the  north.  When  at  last  Abner,  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  north,  and  Ishbaal  himself  were  as- 
sassinated, all  the  people  turned  to  David.  By  the  selection  of 
a  new  political  center,  Jebus — Jerusalem — in  the  conquest  of 
which  north  and  south  co-operated,  he  strengthened  the  union. 
The  establishment  of  a  royal  sanctuary  in  the  same  place 
also  would  cause  people  from  both  sections  to  come  there. 
The  surrounding  nations  were  either  conquered  or  friendly 
relations  were  established  with  them,  until  his  sway  extended 
from  the  Lebanon  in  the  north  to  the  Red  Sea  in  the  south, 
and  from  the  Mediterranean  in  the  west  to  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Syrian  Desert  in  the  cast.  Naturally  the  extension 


04  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

of  power  and  territory  led  to  a  more  complete  organization 
of  the  army  and  the  court. 

The  domestic  and  court  life  of  David  was  not  as  satis- 
factory and  glorious  as  was  his  public  life.  The  rebellion 
of  his  son  Absalom  and  the  events  leading  up  to  it  must 
have  cast  a  broad  shadow  over  his  household;  the  murder 
of  Uriah,  his  marriage  with  Bathsheba,  and  the  intrigues  re- 
sulting from  it,  dim  somewhat  the  glory  of  his  reign.  David 
was,  indeed,  not  without  his  gross  faults;  nevertheless  his 
intentions  seem  to  have  been  in  the  right  direction;  and  it 
is  this  fact,  illustrated  more  or  less  consistently  in  all  his  life, 
which  caused  him  to  be  called  a  man  after  God's  own  heart. 
During  the  closing  years  of  his  reign  David  seems  to  have 
wkhdrawn  more  and  more  from  public  activities,  and  yet  at 
his  death  he' left  to  his  successor  a  strong  and  mighty  empire. 

c.  King  Solomon  and  His  Reign.  The  monarchy  was  a 
recent  experiment  in  Israel,  and  the  laws  of  succession  had 
not  been  definitely  fixed.  However,  in  accord  with  the  cus- 
tom prevalent  among  other  peoples,  the  oldest  son  of  the  king 
seems  to  have  been  considered  the  natural  successor,  though 
apparently  the  people  retained  the  right  to  reject  him  if  they 
saw  fit.  The  oldest  living  son  of  David  was  Adonijah,  who 
considered  himself  entitled  to  the  throne ;  but  he  had  a  power- 
ful rival  in  Solomon,  the  son  of  the  favorite  Bathsheba,  and 
after  much  intrigue  the  latter  was  anointed  king.  On  the 
whole,  the  reign  of  Solomon  was  disastrous.  He  adopted  the 
methods  of  an  Oriental  despot,  with  lofty  political  ambitions, 
and  lacking  in  appreciation  of  the  spiritual  religion  of  Je- 
hovah. True,  he  erected  the  magnificent  temple;  and  this  act 
is  the  chief  glory  of  his  reign,  and  has  caused  later  genera- 
tions to  overlook  many  of  his  faults  and  follies;  but  he  was 
equally  ready  to  build  sanctuaries  for  other  deities  when  his 
wife  requested  him  to  do  so. 

Solomon  is  renowned  for  his  wisdom,  and  the  author  of 
Kings  has  preserved  several  illustrations  of  his  sagacity.  But 
wisdom  with  the  author  of  Kings  is  not  what  it  is  m  the 


THE  JUDGES— THE  UNITED  MONARCHY        85 

Wisdom  Literature  or  what  is  suggested  by  the  term  to-day. 
The  absence  of  moral  and  spiritual  perception  was  not  in- 
compatible with  it,  for  the  writer  is  thinking  only  of  the  sec- 
ular type  of  wisdom,  illustrations  of  which  may  be  found 
among  other  Oriental  peoples;  and  Solomon's  mistakes  as  a 
ruler  did  not  impair  his  reputation  as  the  most  famous  wise 
man  of  his  age  and  race.  As  a  result  of  his  policy  he  left 
Israel  far  weaker  than  it  was  when  he  ascended  the  throne, 
and  it  was  during  his  reign  that  the  seeds  of  decadence  were 
sown  which  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the  kingdom.  In  addi- 
tion .to  the  building  of  the  temple,  which  proved  of  the  most 
far-reaching  significance,  three  things  stand  out  prominently 
in  the  reign  of  Solomon,  all  of  which  had  disastrous  effects 
upon  the  nation's  life :  i.  The  revolts  in  Edom  and  Damascus, 
which  showed  that  Israel  was  losing  its  hold  on  the  nations 
conquered  by  David.  2.  The  oppression  of  the  people,  which 
caused  dissatisfaction  with  the  dynasty  of  David.  3.  Com- 
mercial and  marriage  alliances,  which  opened  the  way  for  the 
introduction  of  foreign  customs  and  religious  ideas. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  Books  of  Judges  and  Ruth. 

The  Judges  and  their  work. 

Conditions   in   Palestine   at  the  beginning  of  the  period  of 

Judges. 

Principal  events  during  the  period. 
Contents  of  the  Books  of  Samuel  and  Kings. 
Events  leading  to  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy. 
King  Saul  and  his  reign. 
King  David  and  his  reign. 
King  Solomon  and  his  reign. 


Bibliography: 

Ottley,  "A  Short  History  of  the  Hebrews." 

Kent,  "Founders  and  Rulers  of  United  Israel." 

Hastings,    "One   Volume    Dictionary."     Articles  on   various 

subjects. 
Commentaries:    "Judges    and    Ruth,"    Thatcher;    "Samuel," 

Kennedy. 


86  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Religious  conditions  in  Israel  in  the  period  of  the  Judges. 

2.  The  military  successes  of  David. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  was  the  real  work  of  the  Judges? 

2.  Name  the  principal  events  of  the  period  of  the  Judges? 

3.  Give  the  principal  causes  leading  to  the  establishment  of 

the  monarchy. 

4.  Discuss  the  reign  of  Saul. 

5.  Describe  the  elements  of  strength  in  David. 

6.  Characterize  the  reign  of  Solomon. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   DIVIDED  MONARCHY,    THE   EXILE,    AND 
THE  RESTORATION 

I.   Sources  of  Information. 

a.  The  Two  Books  of  Kings.  The  Books  of  Kings  are 
the  principal  historical  sources  for  the  period  of  the  divided 
monarchy.  The  author  of  the  books  gathered  his  material 
from  earlier  sources ;  his  own  work  is  most  apparent  in  the 
recurring  formulas  which  constitute  the  frame  work  into 
which  the  citations  from  the  older  sources  are  fitted.  The 
opening  formula  is  a  little  more  complete  in  the  case  of  the 
kings  of  Judah  than  in  that  of  the  kings  of  Israel.  In  the 
case  of  the  former  it  gives  (i)  the  synchronisms  with  the 
kingdom  of  Israel;  (2)  the  age  of  the  monarch  at  the  time 
of  his  accession;  (3)  the  length  of  his  reign;  (4)  the  name 
of  the  king's  mother;  (5)  a  brief  judgment  on  his  character 
and  reign.  In  the  case  of  Israel  it  gives  (i)  the  synchronisms 
with  Judah;  (2)  the  length  of  the  king's  reign;  (3)  a  brief 
judgment,  always  unfavorable.  The  closing  formula  assumes 
the  following  form:  (i)  The  compiler's  reference  to  his  prin- 
cipal source  of  information;  (2)  mention  of  the  king's  death 
and  burial;  (3)  name  of  the  successor.  One  marked  feature 
of  these  formulas  is  the  stereotyped  judgment  upon  each 
king,  especially  with  reference  to  their  attitude  toward  the 
high  places.  From  this  and  other  facts  it  is  evident  that  the 
interests  of  the  compiler  were  religious,  rather  than  political; 
which,  in  turn,  explains  why  so  many  events  of  importance 
to  the  modern  historian  were  either  ignored  or  received  only 
passing  notice. 
f  Within  this  framework  the  compiler  inserted,  practically 

87 


88  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

without  alteration— as  may  be  seen  from  the  change  in  style 
when  there  is  a  change  in  source — the  older  material,  con- 
sisting in  part  of  brief  summaries  of  political  events,  in  part 
of  longer  narratives  not  directly  concerned  with  the  public 
doings  of  the  kings.  The  latter,  most  prominent  among 
them  the  biographies  of  Elijah  and  Elisha,  may  have  origi- 
nated partly  from  prophetic  circles  and  partly  from  priestly 
centers.  The  work  reached  its  final  form  soon  after  the  de* 
struction  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.  C. 

b.  Sources  of  Information  for  the  Later  Period.  The  clos- 
ing verses  of  the  Second  Book  of  Kings  relate  two  inci- 
dents: (i)  the  brief  rule  of  Gedaliah  and  his  assassination; 
(2)  the  release  from  prison  of  Jehoiachin,  king  of  Judah, 
who  was  carried  into  exile  in  597.  No  Biblical  historical 
book  gives  a  description  of  the  life  of  the  Jews  in  exile.  As 
far  as  the  Old  Testament  writings  are  concerned,  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  information  on  this  point  is  the  Book  of 
Ezekiel.  The  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  deal  with  the 
restoration.  They  furnish  glimpses  of  the  first  return  in  537 
and  the  early  experiences  of  the  restored  exiles ;  concerning 
the  activities  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  their  information  is 
much  fuller.  The  two  books  appear  in  the  Jewish  canon  as 
one,  and  together  with  Chronicles  are  probably  the  work  of 
an  author  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century 
B.  C.  This  author  used,  in  addition  to  other  material,  per- 
sonal memoirs  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  who  are  the  heroes 
of  the  two  books.  Notwithstanding  the  late  date  of  the  books 
in  their  present  form,  there  seems  no  reason  for  doubting 
that  they  present  even  in  the  portions  originating  with  the 
compiler,  a  substantially  correct  picture  of  the  experiences 
and  struggles  of  the  post-exilic  community.  The  Book  of 
Ezra  falls  naturally  into  two  sections:  I.  The  return  of  the 
exiles  under  Sheshbazzar,  chapters  i— 6;  II.  The  return 
under  Ezra,  and  the  reforms  attempted  by  him,  chapters  7 
— 10.  The  Book  of  Nehemiah  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts :  I,  First  visit  of  Nehemiah  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  build- 


THE  DIVIDED  MONARCHY  89 

ing  of  the  city  walls,  chapters  I — 7;  II.  Solemn  promulga- 
tion of  the  Law,  chapters  8 — 10;  III.  Various  lists,  dedica- 
tion of  the  walls,  Nehemiah's  second  visit  and  subsequent  re- 
forms, chapters  n — 13. 

c.  The  Books  of  Chronicles.  The  two  Books  of  Chron- 
icles, which  appear  as  one  in  the  Jewish  canon,  were  written 
by  an  unknown  author  some  time  before  300  B.  C.  The 
books  are  not  a  continuation  of  Kings,  but  cover  practically 
the  same  ground  as  the  historical  writings  from  Genesis  to 
Kings ;  in  other  words,  they  embrace  the  period  from  Adam 
to  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  in  538  or  537,  permitting  the  exiled 
Jews  to  return  to  Jerusalem ;  the  genealogies  are  continued 
to  even  a  later  date.  The  viewpoint  of  the  chronicler  is  not 
that  of  the  earlier  historical  writers,  for  while  in  the  other 
books  prophetic  elements  predominate,  the  Books  of  Chron- 
icles are  permeated  by  the  priestly  spirit,  and  might  be  called 
an  Ecclesiastical  History.  The  contents  of  Chronicles  may  be 
outlined  as  follows :  I.  History  of  events  from  Adam  to  Saul, 
I  Chron.  I — 9;  this  is  almost  entirely  in  the  form  of  gene- 
alogies; II.  History  of  David,  I  Chron.  10 — 29;  III.  The 
Reign  of  Solomon,  2  Chron.  I— -9;  IV.  History  of  Judah, 
from  the  division  of  the  kingdom  to  the  restoration,  2  Chron. 
10—36. 

The  chronicler  seems  to  be  dependent,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, upon  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  and  Ruth,  and  much 
more  extensively  upon  Samuel  and  Kings.  In  addition  he 
used  numerous  other  sources,  to  which  frequent  references 
are  made.  But  the  material  thus  received  by  the  compiler 
is  not  slavishly  copied  by  him;  he  alters  it  by  making  addi- 
tions or  subtractions  to  suit  his  own  peculiar  purpose.  It  is 
quite  evident  that  he  means  to  give  a  history  of  Judah  only, 
with  special  reference  to  the  temple  and  the  religious  institu 
tions  and  practices  centered  in  it;  whatever  had  no  bearing 
upon  these  subjects  was  either  rapidly  passed  over  or  entirely 
omitted.  Moreover,  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the 
material  he  seems  to  have  been  prompted  by  a  didactivo  mo- 


00  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

tive  rather  than  by  a  strictly  historical  aim.  His  aim  appears 
to  be  to  teach  that  virtue  and  vice,  in  private  life  or  in  na- 
tional affairs,  invariably  receive  their  dues ;  past  history  is 
drawn  upon  to  illustrate  and  enforce  this  teaching. 

d.  The  Book  of  Esther.  Of  the  books  reckoned  among 
the  historical  books  in  the  English  Old  Testament  one  re- 
mains to  be  considered,  namely,  Esther.  The  tone  of  the 
Book  of  Esther  compares  unfavorably  with  the  spirit  of  al- 
most every  other  Old  Testament  book.  Like  the  Book  of 
Ruth,  it  deals  with  a  special  incident ;  but  while  Ruth  be- 
longs to  the  period  of  the  Judges,  Esther  takes  us  to  the 
post-exilic  period,  the  days  of  Xerxes  (485-465  B.  C.)  The 
story  relates  how  Esther,  a  Jewish  resident  in  the  Persian 
capital  Susa,  rose  to  be  queen  of  Xerxes,  and  how  she  suc- 
ceeded in  rescuing  her  countrymen  from  the  destruction 
which  Haman,  the  king's  favorite,  had  prepared  for  them. 
"The  story  is  well  told.  The  queen  of  Xerxes  is  deposed  for 
contumacy,  and  her  crown  is  set  upon  the  head  of  Esther,  a 
lovely  Jewish  maiden.  Presently  the  whole  Jewish  race  is 
imperiled  by  an  act  of  Mordecai,  the  foster-father  of  Esther, 
who  refuses  to  do  obeisance  to  Haman,  a  powerful  and  fa- 
vorite courtier.  Haman's  plans  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Jews  are  frustrated  by  Esther,  acting  on  a  suggestion  of 
Mordecai.  The  courtier  himself  falls  from  power,  and  is 
finally  hanged  on  the  gallows  he  had  prepared  for  Mordecai, 
while  Mordecai,  the  Jew,  is  exalted  to  the  place  next  to  the 
king,  and  the  Jews,  whom  the  initial  decree  had  doomed  to 
extermination,  turn  the  tables  by  slaying  over  75,000  of  their 
enemies  throughout  the  empire,  including  the  ten  sons  of 
Haman.  In  memory  of  the  deliverance  the  Purim  festival  is 
celebrated  on  the  I4th  and  isth  of  the  month  Adar." 

The  object  of  the  book  is  apparently  twofold:  (i)  to 
explain  the  origin  of  the  Purim  festival,  (2)  to  glorify  the 
Jewish  people.  Its  date  can  not  be  definitely  fixed;  but  it 
is  not  impossible  that  it  represents  a  phase  of  the  fierce 
Palestinian  Judaism  of  the  second  century  B-  C. 


THE  DIVIDED  MONARCHY  91 

2.  The  Division  of  the  Kingdom.  The  events  leading 
to  the  division  of  the  kingdom  are  described  in  detail.  The 
people,  dissatisfied  with  the  policy  of  oppression  introduced 
by  Solomon,  demanded  of  his  son  a  reduction  of  the  burden, 
but  he  stubbornly  refused;  whereupon  the  northern  tribes 
cut  themselves  loose  from  the  house  of  David,  and  elected  as 
their  king  Jeroboam,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim.  It  must  not 
be  thought,  however,  that  the  stubbornness  of  Rehoboam  was 
the  only  cause  of  the  division.  The  narratives  suggest  at 
least  one  other  important  factor,  namely,  the  attitude  of  the 
prophets.  The  latter  realized  that  a  continuation  of  Solo- 
mon's policy  would  mean  ruin  to  the  religion  of  Jehovah ;  on 
the  other  hand,  they  thought  that  with  the  resources  divided, 
the  carrying  out  of  his  policy  would  be  rendered  impossible; 
hence,  to  save  religion  they  were  ready  to  sacrifice  the  union. 
But  to  understand  the  full  cause  it  is  necessary  to  turn  back 
a  few  chapters  in  Hebrew  history.  The  earliest  records  in 
the  Books  of  Joshua  and  Judges  present  to  our  view  two 
groups  of  tribes :  on  the  one  hand,  the  tribes  in  the  north 
and  center;  on  the  other,  Judah  and  Simeon.  Each  group 
fought  its  own  battles  and  wrestled  with  its  own  problems. 
The  Song  of  Deborah  (Judges  5),  which  describes  the  war 
of  independence  in  the  north,  does  not  even  mention  Judah 
and  Simeon.  Never  during  the  period  of  the  Judges  was  the 
gulf  bridged  over,  and  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  dividing 
line  of  the  earlier  period  became  practically  the  dividing  line, 
between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah.  There  were  es- 
pecially two  facts  that  caused  and  helped  to  maintain  the 
division:  I.  A  line  of  strong  Canaanitish  cities,  of  which 
Jebus  was  one,  extended  almost  entirely  across  the  land  from 
east  to  west,  thus  cutting  off  the  north  from  the  south; 
2.  The  southern  tribes  seem  to  have  absorbed  an  unusually 
large  native  element,  which  tended  to  neutralize  the  mutual 
attraction  of  blood  and  religion. 

Under  the  stress  of  a  common  danger  the  tribes  united 
for  a  while  under  the  standard  of  Saul.  But  the  support  of 


?2  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  south  was  soon  withdrawn,  when  David,  who  belonged 
to  the  South,  was  driven  from  the  court.  The  readiness 
with  which  the  elders  of  Judah  proceeded  after  the  death 
of  Saul  to  make  David  their  king,  shows  conclusively  that 
the  union  of  north  and  south  was  not  very  strong.  When 
the  sword  cut  down  Abner  and  Ishbaal  and  left  the  north 
without  a  leader,  necessity  compelled  the  northern  tribes  to 
submit  to  David,  but  the  weakness  of  the  union  showed  itself 
when,  after  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  the  north  revolted  and 
had  to  be  subdued  by  force  of  arms.  Solomon  took  care,  in 
the  beginning  of  his  reign,  to  remove  by  the  sword  the  per- 
sons who  might  prove  troublesome.  Perhaps  he  felt  too  se- 
cure after  this,  for  his  conduct  was  by  no  means  such  as 
would  reconcile  the  people  to  himself.  Although  for  a  time 
they  may  have  been  dazzled  by  the  splendor  of  his  reign, 
they  soon  discovered  that  the  glitter  was  not  all  gold.  There 
could  be  but  one  outcome  to  his  policy.  To  reduce  to  serfdom  a 
people  which  a  generation  before  was  free  and  independent, 
meant  inevitable  rebellion  as  soon  as  opportunity  would  offer. 
3.  The  Divided  Kingdom. 

a.  Important  Events  in  the  History  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom.  If  the  year  of  the  division  is  placed  at  about  937, 
as  is  commonly  done,  the  history  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel, 
from  the  division  to  the  fall  of  Samaria,  which  marked  its 
downfall,  in  722,  covers  approximately  215  years.  Of  the 
more  important  events  during  this  period  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  i.  The  establishment  of  the  royal  sanctuaries 
at  Dan  and  Bethel,  for  the  purpose  of  counteracting  the  at- 
tractiveness of  the  temple  worship  in  Jerusalem.  2.  The 
frequent  changes  in  dynasties  and  numerous  assassinations. 
An  idea  of  the  unsettled  conditions  in  Israel  may  be  gathered 
from  the  fact  that  during  the  215  years  of  its  existence  Israel 
had  altogether  nineteen  kings,  belonging  to  nine  distinct 
dynasties.  During  the  same  period  Judah  had  only  twelve 
kings,  with  no  change  of  dynasties.  3.  The  rise  of  the  dy- 
nasty of  Omri,  about  885,  and  the  splendid  reign  of  its 


THE  DIVIDED  MONARCHY  93 

founder  marks  a  new  epoch.  The  genius  of  Omri  manifested 
itself  in  the  selection  of  the  hill  of  Samaria  as  the  site  of 
his  capital.  Though  he  suffered  some  reverses,  on  the  whole 
his  reign  was  exceedingly  successful,  and  he  raised  the 
northern  kingdom  to  a  position  of  power  such  as  it  had  not 
enjoyed  before.  4.  The  reign  of  Ahab  is  made  prominent 
by  the  introduction  of  Baal  worship  and  the  activity  of  the 
great  prophets  Elijah  and  Elisha.  I  Kings  17 — 2  Kings  13 
is  devoted  to  the  lives  and  activities  of  these  two  men  of 
God.  Ahab  adopted  the  policy  of  Solomon,  and  thus  aroused 
much  resentment  among  the  people.  5.  The  revolution  of 
Jehu.  With  the  death  of  Ahab,  about  853,  began  a  series  of 
disasters  for  Israel.  At  last  the  religious  storm,  which  had 
been  brewing  for  some  time,  broke  in  the  revolution  of  Jehu, 
apparently  instigated  by  the  prophets,  which  swept  the  Baal 
cult  from  the  land  and  the  hated  dynasty  of  Omri  from  the 
throne.  6.  Jeroboam  II,  who  reigned  from  about  782  to  741, 
was  the  most  successful  king  of  the  Jehu  dynasty.  Through 
the  extension  of  territory,  the  revival  of  commerce,  and  the 
development  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  land,  Israel  rose, 
during  his  reign,  to  a  pitch  of  power  and  prosperity  unheard 
of  since  the  days  of  Solomon.  The  evils  which  resulted  from 
this  material  prosperity  called  forth  the  prophets  Amos  and 
Hosea.  7.  From  the  summit  of  glory  and  splendor  under 
Jeroboam,  Israel  fell  within  one  generation  to  the  lowest 
depths  of  disaster.  Four  of  the  six  kings  who  succeeded  him 
were  struck  down  by  assassins,  and  one  was  slain  by  foreign 
invaders ;  only  one  died  a  natural  death.  This  condition  of 
anarchy  and  the  foolish  foreign  policy  of  the  rulers  culmi- 
nated in  the  destruction  of  Samaria  and  the  kingdom  in 
722/721  B.  C.  8.  From  the  days  of  Omri  on,  the  fortunes 
of  Israel  were  closely  bound  up  with  the  fortunes  of  Assyria. 
The  first  mention  of  an  Israelite  king  in  an  Assyrian  in- 
scription is  in  an  account  of  the  battle  of  Karkar,  in  854, 
where  Ahab  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  allies  to  resist 
thef  Assyrian  armies.  After  that  Assyria  interfered  again 


94  THE  WORKER  AXD  HIS  BIBLE 

and  again  in  Israel's  history,  and  the  kingdom's  downfall 
was  caused  by  its  armies. 

b.  Important  Events  in  the  History  of  the  Southern 
Kingdom.  The  territory  of  the  south  was  only  about  one- 
half  that  of  the  north,  while  the  arable  land  was  less  than 
one-fourth.  But  though  in  size  the  northern  kingdom  was 
superior  to  the  southern,  Judah  enjoyed  several  advantages, 
which  proved  of  considerable  importance  in  its  later  history. 
Among  these  were  (i)  its  seclusion,  which  helped  to  keep 
away  foreign  invaders;  (2)  the  condition  of  its  soil,  which 
yielded  only  a  meager  subsistence  in  return  for  the  most 
wearisome  labor,  was  calculated  to  develop  hardy,  earnest, 
courageous  men,  fond  of  their  rocky  hills  and  tenacious  of 
their  peculiar  customs  and  religion;  (3)  the  unity  of  popu- 
lation and  interests  made  of  Judah  a  perfect  social  unit 
bound  together  by  the  closest  natural  bonds;  (4)  the  cen- 
tralization of  government  in  Jerusalem  under  a  hereditary 
dynasty,  which  enjoyed  the  prestige  of  the  name  of  David 
and  all  the  cumulative  power  which  comes  from  an  uninter- 
rupted succession,  tended  to  give  stability  to  the  southern 
kingdom;  (5)  another  element  of  strength  was  furnished  by 
the  centralization  of  worship  in  the  temple.  Religion  had 
proved  a  bond  of  union  in  the  past.  Now  the  temple  in  Je- 
rusalem, with  its  splendid  equipment,  commanded  the  rev- 
erence and  homage  of  all  the  people  of  Judah,  and  was, 
therefore,  a  potent  factor  for  union. 

Partly  at  least  as  a  result  of  these  advantages  the  south- 
ern kingdom  continued  to  exist  about  135  years  longer  than 
Israel.  It  came  to  an  end  with  the  fall  and  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  in  586  B.  C.  During  the  period  of  its  existence, 
lasting  about  350  years,  Judah  had  nineteen  kings  and  one 
queen,  all  the  kings  belonging  to  the  dynasty  of  David;  but 
few  of  them  were  capable  and  efficient  rulers,  and  by  no 
means  ali  were  as  loyal  adherents  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah 
as  was  their  ancestor  David.  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah, 
and  Josiah  receive  special  commendation  for  their  piety,  and 


THE  DIVIDED  MONARCHY  95 

a  few  of  the  others  increased  the  welfare  of  their  country. 
Of  the  more  important  events  the  following  may  be  briefly 
noted:  i.  The  long  struggles  with  the  north,  which  began 
under  Rehoboam  and  continued,  with  few  intermissions,  to 
the  close  of  Israel's  history.  2.  The  invasion  of  Judah  by 
Shishak  of  Egypt  five  years  after  the  death  of  Solomon, 
which  proved  a  serious  blow  to  the  southern  kingdom  and 
weakened  its  military  resources.  3.  The  reign  of  Jehosha- 
phat,  who  introduced  a  new  stage  in  the  nation's  life  with 
respect  to  popular  instruction  and  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice. 4.  The  six  years'  reign  of  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of 
Ahab  and  Jezebel  of  Israel.  She  advocated  Baal  worship, 
but  her  rule  came  to  an  ignominious  end  through  a  rebellion 
headed  by  the  chief  priest  Jehoiada.  5.  The  prosperous  reign 
of  Uzziah,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  Jeroboam  II,  of 
Israel.  As  in  Israel,  the  material  prosperity  was  followed  by 
serious  religious  and  social  evils.  6.  The  activity  of  Isaiah 
and  Micah,  who  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century 
tried  to  recall  Judah  to  a  purer  worship  and  more  righteous 
life.  7.  The  partial  reforms  instituted  by  King  Hezekiah 
and  aided  by  the  two  prophets  named.  During  his  reign 
occurred  also  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Sennacherib  of  As- 
syria, which  culminated  in  the  remarkable  deliverance  of 
Jerusalem.  8.  The  reactionary  reign  of  Manasseh,  who 
sought  to  root  out  entirely  the  worship  of  Jehovah.  9.  The 
reform  movement  under  Josiah  in  621,  which  marked  the 
beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  the  religious  development  of 
Judah,  though  its  immediate  results  were  somewhat  disap- 
pointing. 10.  The  conflicts  with  the  Assyrians  and  their  suc- 
cessors, the  Chaldeans,  which  began  during  the  eighth  cen- 
tury and  resulted  in  the  downfall  of  the  State  in  586  B.  C. 
4.  The  Exile  and  the  Restoration.  Many  of  che  Jews 
were  carried  into  exile  to  Babylonia  after  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem.  The  number  of  captives  it  is  difficult  to  estimate; 
the  total  was  probably  somewhat  less  than  fifty  thousand. 
Tke  exiled  Jews  were  in  no  sense  slaves ;  they  seem  to  have 


p6  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

been  free  in  every  respect  except  in  the  choice  of  residence. 
Many  grew  wealthy,  and  many  turned  away  from  the  re- 
ligion of  Jehovah.  But  there  were  others,  in  whom  the 
teaching  of  Jeremiah,  emphasizing  the  individual  and  spir- 
itual aspect  of  religion,  had  taken  root;  these  continued  their 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  under  the  guidance  of  Ezekiel  a  purer 
type  of  religion  was  developed,  and  the  hopes  of  a  restora- 
tion to  the  Promised  Land  were  kept  alive.  There  are  espe- 
cially three  aspects  of  the  religious  development  during  the 
period  of  exile  that  stand  out  prominently:  I.  A  vital  sense 
of  repentance  was  generated ;  2.  Religion  came  to  be  con- 
sidered a  more  spiritual  and  personal  matter;  3.  Monotheism 
was  placed  upon  a  firmer  basis. 

After  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  conqueror  of 
Judah,  the  power  of  Babylon  rapidly  declined,  until,  in  538, 
Cyrus,  the  king  of  Anshan,  became  master  of  the  city  and 
empire.  He  showed  great  leniency  toward  the  nations  de- 
ported by  the  Babylonians  and  gave  them  permission  to 
return  to  their  homes.  In  537  a  company  of  Jews,  con- 
sisting of  from  forty  to  fifty  thousand  persons,  took  advan* 
tage  of  this  permission  and  returned  to  Palestine.  Imme- 
diately on  reaching  Jerusalem  an  altar  was  erected  and  the 
foundations  of  a  new  temple  were  laid.  But  the  religious 
interest  soon  died  out,  and  when  opposition  arose  from  with- 
out, the  people  dropped  the  building  enterprise.  In  520  the 
two  prophets  Haggai  and  Zechariah  arose,  urging  the  people 
to  resume  building  operations,  as  only  in  this  wise  they  could 
secure  the  favor  of  Jehovah.  Their  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success,  the  operations  were  resumed,  and  in  516  the 
temple  was  dedicated. 

The  information  concerning  the  period  between  the  com- 
pletion of  the  temple  in  516  and  the  arrival  of  Ezra  in  458 
is  rather  scanty,  but  the  following  features  stand  out  promi- 
nently: (i)  The  rise  of  skepticism  due  to  the  non-fulfillment 
of  prophecy  and  the  observation  of  the  inequalities  of  life; 
(2)  neglect  of  offerings  and  tithes;  (3)  oppression  of  the 


THE  DIVIDED  MONARCHY  97 

poor;  (4)  marriage  alliances  with  heathen  women;  (5)  di- 
vorce; (6)  Sabbath  desecration.  In  458  came  Ezra,  the 
scribe,  and  in  445  Nehemiah,  the  governor.  Both  were  in- 
tensely interested  in  the  best  welfare  of  their  countrymen, 
and  both  came  with  privileges  and  authority  bestowed  upon 
them  by  the  Persian  king.  Ezra  immediately  attacked  the 
abuses,  though  apparently  without  much  result;  but  when 
Nehemiah  came  and  the  two  joined  forces,  things  began  to 
come  to  pass.  The  city  wall  was  built,  and  then  attempts 
were  made  to  bring  about  far-reaching  reforms  covering  all 
the  points  enumerated.  This  was  done  chiefly  by  establish- 
ing the  law  as  final  authority  over  every  detail  of  public 
and  private  life.  These  reforms  were  not  carried  out  with- 
out arousing  strenuous  opposition.  Especially  the  provisions 
for  the  putting  away  of  foreign  wives  aroused  resentment, 
but  Nehemiah  was  immovable.  One  of  the  results  of  this 
measure  was  the  secession  of  Manasseh,  the  grandson  of  the 
high  priest  Eliashib,  who  refused  to  give  up  his  wife. 
Whereupon  his  father-in-law,  Sanballat,  is  said  to  have  es- 
tablished for  him  a  rival  temple  at  Gerizim,  the  religious 
center  of  the  Samaritan  community. 

5.  From  Nehemiah  to  the  Opening  of  the  Christian  Era. 

The  Old  Testament  historical  books  do  not  take  us  beyond 
the  reforms  of  Nehemiah  in  432.  Of  later  events,  reflected 
in  part  in  the  latest  Old  Testament  writings,  in  part  in  the 
apocryphal  books,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  as  the 
most  important:  i.  The  growth  of  legalism  and,  accompany- 
ing it,  the  development  of  a  spirit  of  narrow  exclusiveness 
on  the  part  of  the  Jews.  2.  Alexander  the  Great  became 
master  of  Palestine  in  332.  3.  After  the  division  of  his  king- 
dom Palestine  became,  in  301,  a  province  of  Egypt,  and  re- 
mained such  until  198.  This  period  was,  on  the  whole,  one 
of  marked  prosperity.  4.  The  privileges  offered  to  Jewish 
colonists  by  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  Syria  caused  the  scatter- 
ing of  the  Jews  in  many  directions.  5.  Greek  influence  be- 
came very  strong  in  some  parts  of  Palestine  after  the  con- 


98  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

quest  of  Alexander.  6.  The  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
into  Greek  was  begun  in  Alexandria  about  the  middle  of 
the  third  century  B.  C.  /.  Palestine  became  a  province  of 
the  Seleucidan  kingdom  of  Syria  in  198.  8.  The  attempts  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  to  stamp  out  Judaism  caused  the  Mac- 
cabean  revolt  in  168  B.  C.  9.  During  the  second  century  B.  C. 
arose  the  Jewish  sects  of  the  Pharisees,  the  Sadducees,  and 
the  Essenes.  10.  The  Roman  rule  in  Palestine  began  in 
63  B.  C. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  two  Books  of  Kings. 

Sources  of  information  on  the  period  of  the  Exile  and  the 

Restoration. 

The  Books  of  Chronicles. 
The  Book  of  Esther. 

The  causes  of  the  division  of  the  kingdom. 
Important  events  in  the  histoiy  of  the  northern  kingdom. 
Important  events  in  the  history   of  the  southern  kingdom. 
The  Babylonian  captivity  and  restoration. 
Historical  events  after  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  432  B.  C. 


Bibliography : 

Kent,  "History  of  the  Jewish  People." 
Kent,  "The  Kings  and  Prophets  of  Israel  and  Judah." 
Riggs,  "History  of  the  Jewish  People." 

Commentaries:     "Kings,"     Skinner;     "Chronicles,"     Harvey- 
Jellie;  "Ezra  and  Nehemiah,"  Ryle;  "Esther,"   Streane. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  Chronicler. 

2,  The  effect  of  the  Babylonian  captivity  upon  the  religion 

of  the  Jews. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  Point  of  view  of  the  Books  of  Kings. 

2.  Point  of  view  of  the  Books  of  Chronicles. 

3.  The  causes  of  the  division  of  the  kingdom. 

4.  Chief  events  of  the  history  of  Israel. 

5.  Advantages  of  the  southern  kingdom. 

6.  Chief  events  of  the  history  of  Judah. 

7.  Describe  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

8.  Tell  of  the  work  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  OF  THE 
OLD  TESTAMENT 

1.  Poetry  in  the  Old  Testament.  Since  the  devotional 
literature  of  the  Old  Testament  is  in  the  form  of  poetry,  it 
seems  advisable  to  consider  briefly  the  general  subject  of 
Hebrew  poetry  before  taking  up  the  study  of  the  devotional 
books.  The  Old  Testament  has  preserved  a  large  amount 
of  this  poetry,  but  there  are  references  and  allusions  which 
show  that  much  of  it  has  been  lost.  For  example,  reference 
is  made  to  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  Jehovah  (Num.  21 :  14) 
and  the  Book  of  Jashar  (Josh.  10:  13),  evidently  collections 
of  poems  earlier  than  those  now  found  in  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures. Old  Testament  poetry  has  to  do  with  all  experiences 
and  conditions  of  life  that  yield  themselves  to  poetic  treat- 
ment. Much  of  this  poetry  is  preserved  in  the  historical 
books,  and  the  translators  of  the  Revised  Version  are  to  be 
commended  for  indicating  the  poetic  form  in  the  text.  Some 
of  these  poetic  compositions  are  secular  in  the  sense  that  they 
center  around  secular  themes,  but  even  these  are  pervaded 
by  a  deep  religious  spirit.  The  best  specimens  of  secular 
poetry  are  the  Blessing  of  Jacob  (Gen.  49:2-27);  the  Tri- 
umph Song  over  the  destruction  of  the  Egyptians  (Ex.  15: 
1-18)  ;  the  Blessing  of  Moses  (Deut.  33:2-29);  the  Song  of 
Deborah  (Judges  5:2-31);  the  Fable  of  Jotham  (Judges 
9 : 8-15)  ;  the  Lament  of  David  over  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2 
Sam.  1:19-27).  The  prophetic  books  also  contain  many 
fine  specimens  of  poetry;  and  frequently  the  prophets  rise 
to*  an  elevated  poetic  style  which  can  not  easily  be  distin- 

99 


100 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


guished  from  poetry  proper.  In  addition  to  these  scattered 
poems  the  Old  Testament  contains  five  books  that  consist 
entirely,  or  almost  so,  of  poetic  compositions,  namely,  the 
Books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Song  of  Songs,  and  Lam- 
entations. The  author  of  Ecclesiastes  is  also  at  times  led 
to  express  his  thoughts  in  poetic  form.  These  six  books 
represent  two  of  the  five  kinds  of  Old  Testament  literature 
distinguished  in  the  first  chapter,  namely,  the  devotional  and 
the  wisdom  literature. 

a.  Essential  Characteristics  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  Poetry 
is  defined  by  Leigh  Hunt  in  these  words :  "Poetry  is  the  ut- 
terance of  a  passion  for  truth,  beauty,  and  power,  embodying 
and  illustrating  its  conceptions  by  imagination  and  fancy, 
and  modulating  its  language  on  the  principle  of  variety  and 
uniformity."  In  this  definition  three  essential  characteristics 
of  all  true  poetry  are  recognized :  I.  The  substance  is  emo- 
tional. It  is  the  utterance  of  a  passion  for  truth,  beauty,  and 
power.  Poetry  springs  from  the  emotions,  and  therefore 
touches  the  emotions.  2.  Its  presentation  is  imaginative. 
Literalism  is  discarded,  and  imagination  is  given  full  sway 
in  the  presentation  of  the  substance.  3.  The  inevitable  result 
is  the  use  of  an  emotional,  sublime  style,  a  style  marked  by 
the  lively  swing  which  is  called  rhythm.  The  formal  element 
of  rhythm,  which  may  be  defined  as  the  harmonious  repeti- 
tion of  certain  fixed  sound  relations,  is  marked  in  classical 
poetry  by  the  regulated  succession  of  long  and  short  syl- 
lables. This  method  has  practically  disappeared  from  mod- 
ern western  poetry,  where  the  regulated  succession  of  ac- 
cented and  unaccented  syllables  has  taken  its  place.  In  addi- 
tion, the  rhythm  may  be  emphasized  by  the  use  of  rhyme,  that 
is,  the  correspondence  in  sound  of  the  final  syllables  in  the 
lines.  Rhyme  is  illustrated  by  the  stanza : 

Just  as  I  am,  without  one  plea, 
But  that  Thy  blcod  was  shed  for  me, 
And  that  Thou  bidst  me  come  to  Thee  • 
G  Lamb  of  God,  I  come ! 


THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  IOi 

The  regulated  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented  syl- 
lables without  rhyme,  called  "Blank  Verse,"  is  shown  ir> 
these  lines  from  the  Drama  of  the  Exile,  by  Mrs.  Browning: 

If  thou  hadst  gazed  upon  the  face  of  God 
This  morning  for  a  moment,  thou  hadst  known 
That  only  pity  fitly  can  chastize, 
Hate  but  avenges. 

The  ancient  Hebrews  were  an  intensely  religious  people^ 
and  the  emphasis  upon  religion  supplied  them  with  the  emo- 
tional material  which  yields  itself  readily  to  poetic  treatment. 
As  Orientals  they  possessed  the  imagination  needed  in  all 
poetic  description.  But  where  these  two  characteristics  are 
found,  rhythmic  expression  follows  almost  inevitably,  pro- 
vided the  author  possesses  a  poetic  genius.  However,  for 
centuries  no  one  knew  the  method  of  indicating  rhythm  in 
Hebrew  poetry.  The  merit  of  discovering  the  secret  belongs- 
to  Bishop  Robert  Lowth,  at  the  time  Professor  of  Poetry  at 
Oxford,  who,  in  1753,  published  a  work  on  "Sacred  Poetry 
of  the  Hebrews,"  in  which  he  pointed  out  that  the  external 
form  of  Hebrew  poetry  was  not  marked  by  rhyme,  or  the 
regulated  succession  of  accented  and  unaccented,  or  long  and 
short  syllables,  but  by  the  arrangement  of  two  clauses  of  ap- 
proximately the  same  length,  so  that  the  second  clause  an- 
swers or  otherwise  completes  the  thought  of  the  first.  To  this- 
phenomenon  he  gave  the  name  "Parallelism  of  Members." 

Lowth  distinguished  three  kinds  of  parallelism:  I.  Synony- 
mous Parallelism;  that  is,  parallel  arrangement  in  which  the 
second  line  contains  a  thought  identical  with  or  similar  to  the 
thought  of  the  first  line.  Compare,  for  example,  Psalm  1:2:. 

But  his  delight  is  in  the  law  of  Jehovah, 

And   in   His  law  doth  he  meditate  day  and   night. 

2.  Antithetic  Parallelism.  Here  the  thought  of  the  first  line 
is  confirmed  or  emphasized  by  contrast,  the  second  line  ex- 
pressing the  opposite  thought;  for  example,  Prov.  ic:i: 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father, 
«.     But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 


CO2 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


3.  Synthetic  or  Constructive  Parallelism.  Here  the  second 
line  contains  neither  a  repetition  of  the  thought  of  the  first 
line,  nor  a  contrast  to  it,  but  in  different  ways  advances  it. 
There  may  be  a  simple  completion  of  the  thought,  as  in 
Psalm  2:6: 

Yet  I  have  set  my  King 

Upon  Zion,  my  holy  hill ; 

or,  the  second  line  may  supply  a  comparison  or  motive;  for 
example,  Proverbs  15:  17: 

Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  where  love  is 
Than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  therewith. 

These  are  the  three  varieties  distinguished  by  Lowth,  and 
for  practical  purposes  this  classification  may  be  sufficient; 
however,  one  other  may  be  mentioned :  4.  Climactic  Parallel- 
ism. Here  the  first  line  is  incomplete;  the  second  line  takes 
up  words  from  it  and  then  completes  the  thought;  for  ex- 
ample,  Psalm  29 :  i : 

Ascribe  unto  Jehovah,  O  ye  sons  of  the  mighty, 
Ascribe  unto  Jehovah,  glory  and  strength. 

b.  Species  of  Poetic  Composition.  The  three  principal 
kinds  of  poetic  composition  are  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric, 
i.  Epic  Poetry  is  descriptive,  and  is  intended  to  be  recited. 
It  deals  with  external  objects,  of  which  it  gives  a  narrative 
in  poetic  form;  the  events  portrayed  may  be  partly  real  and 
partly  fictitious,  or  all  fictitious.  2.  Dramatic  Poetry  is  con- 
cerned with  the  presentation  of  acts  and  events,  and  is  in- 
tended to  be  acted.  It  makes  its  appeal  to  the  eye  as  well 
as  to  the  ear.  There  are  two  subdivisions  of  dramatic  po- 
etry: tragedy  and  comedy.  3.  Lyric  Poetry,  which  is  sub- 
jective. It  sets  forth  the  inward  occurrences  of  the  writer's 
own  mirid,  his  feelings  and  reflections,  his  joys  and  sorrows, 
cares  and  complaints,  aspirations  and  despairs,  etc. 

The  Hebrews  never  created  a.  verse-epic  nor  a  drama  in 
the  sense  of  a  poetic  composition  intended  to  be  acted.  As 
far  as  we  know  now.  the  Babylonians  alone  among  the 


THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE 


103 


Semites  have  developed  epic  poetry.  While  there  is  no 
drama  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word  in  the  Old  Testament, 
the  dramatic  element  is  not  altogether  absent.  The  Book  of 
Psalms,  for  example,  offers  many  specimens  of  dramatic  ar- 
rangement, as  does  also  the  Prophetic  literature.  In  structure 
the  Book  of  Job  is  of  the  nature  of  a  drama,  and  may  be 
termed  a  dramatic  poem;  the  Song  of  Songs  also  is  inter- 
preted by  many  as  a  dramatic  poem.  The  Hebrew  poets  seem 
to  have  been  content  with  cultivating  lyric  poetry  in  all  its 
varieties.  In  lyric  poetry  proper  the  poet  gives  expression  to 
his  emotions  and  subjective  experiences,  or  reproduces  in 
words  the  impressions  which  nature  and  history  have  made 
upon  him.  By  the  side  of  this  lyric  poetry  proper  the  Old 
Testament  contains  a  species  of  poetry  that  may  be  called 
thought  lyric,  also  called  gnomic  poetry.  In  this  kind  of 
poetry  the  author  does  not  express  so  much  his  emotions  and 
experiences  as  his  thoughts  and  observations  on  human  life 
and  society,  or  generalizations  concerning  conduct  and  char- 
acter. Only  very  few  specimens  of  secular  gnomic  poetry  are 
preserved ;  the  finest  of  these  is  the  fable  of  Jotham,  in 
Judges  9:8-15.  Its  religious  and  ethical  forms  are  found  in 
the  so-called  wisdom  literature,  especially  in  the  Book  of 
Proverbs,  which  contains  fables,  parables,  proverbs,  riddles, 
moral  and  political  maxims,  satires,  philosophic  and  specu- 
lative sentences. 

2.  The  Devotional  Books  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  this 
chapter  the  term  "devotional"  is  used  of  those  poetic  compo- 
sitions which  are  intended  to  portray  the  inner  religious  ex- 
periences and  emotions  of  the  authors,  created  and  fostered 
by  their  close  and  intimate  fellowship  with  Jehovah.  These 
expressions  are  cast  in  the  form  of  lyric  poetry.  This  form 
of  poetry  is  scattered  through  the  various  historical  and  pro- 
phetic books.  A  small  percentage  of  it  is  secular  in  the  sense 
that  it  centers  around  secular  themes,  but  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  entire  Old  Testament  is  pre-eminently  a  book  of  re- 
ligion, it  is  only  natural  that  practically  all  the  poetry  in  it 


104  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

•shouM  be  of  a  religious  nature.  In  addition  to  the  widely 
scattered  poems,  the  Old  Testament  contains  two  books  con- 
sisting: entirely  of  religious  lyrics,  which  may  be  called  in  a 
narrower  sense  books  of  devotion,  namely,  the  Books  of  Lam- 
entations and  Psalms. 

a.  The  Book  of  Lamentations.    In  the  English  Old  Testa- 
ment, Lamentations  is  placed  after  Jeremiah,  because  .tradi- 
tion considers  him  the  author  of  the  book.     In  the  Hebrew 
Bible  it  belongs  to  the  third  division,  the  writings ;  and  it  is 
one  of  the  five  Megilloth,  or  Rolls,  which  were  read  publicly 
in  the  synagogues  at  certain  sacred  seasons,  Lamentations  on 
the  ninth  day  of  the  month  Ab,  the  day  on  which  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  was  commemorated.    The  contents  make  it 
evident  that  the  book  originated  soon  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Holy  City,  while  the  sufferings  were  still  fresh  in  the 
minds  of  the  people. 

The  book  consists  of  five  independent  poems,  all  dealing 
with  a  common  theme,  namely,  the  calamities  that  befell  the 
people  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  during  the  siege  and  subse- 
quent capture  of  the  city  in  586  B.  C.  The  description  of  the 
woes  of  the  people  is  interspersed  with  confessions  of  guilt, 
exhortations  to  repentance,  and  supplication  for  the  return 
of  the  divine  favor.  Four  of  the  poems  are  arranged  as 
alphabetic  acrostics.  "Exquisite,"  says  Driver,  "as  is  the 
pathos  which  breathes  in  the  poetry  of  these  dirges,  they  are 
thus,  it  appears,  constructed  with  conscious  art :  they  are  not 
the  unstudied  effusions  of  natural  emotion,  they  are  care- 
fully elaborated  poems,  in  which  no  aspect  of  the  common 
grief  is  unremembered,  and  in  which  every  trait  which  might 
stir  a  chord  of  sorrow  or  regret  is  brought  together  for  the 
purpose  of  completing  the  picture  of  woe." 

b.  The  Book  of  Psalms,    (i)  Its  Place  in  the  Life  of  De- 
votion.    The  Book  of  Psalms  consists   of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  sacred  lyrics,  which  are  arranged  in  five  books:   I,   I— 
41 ;_    II,   42—72;     III,    73—«9;     IV,    90—106;     V,    107—150. 
This  fivefold  division  was  introduced  to   make  the   Psalter, 


THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  ^05 

which  was  the  temple  hymnal,  correspond  to  the  Pentateuch, 
the  sacred  Law-book.  Manifold  were  the  moods  and  expe- 
riences of  the  authors  of  the  Psalms,  but  there  is  one  bond 
which  unites  them  all  into  one  living  unity,  namely,  a  sublime 
faith  in  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel.  This  variety  on  the  one 
hand,  and  unity  on  the  other,  are  the  qualities  which  have 
given  to  the  book  such  unique  place  in  the  religious  life  of 
the  individual  and  of  the  Church.  With  full  justice  says 
Perowne:  "No  single  book  of  Scripture,  not  even  the  New 
Testament,  has  perhaps,  ever  taken  such  hold  on  the  heart 
of  Christendom.  None,  if  we  dare  judge,  unless  it  be  the 
Gospels,  has  had  so  large  an  influence  in  molding  the  affec- 
tions, sustaining  the  hopes,  purifying  the  faith  of  believers. 
With  its  words,  rather  than  their  own,  they  have  come  before 
God.  In  these  they  have  uttered  their  desires,  their  fears, 
their  confessions,  their  aspirations,  their  sorrows,  their  joys, 
their  thanksgivings.  By  these  their  devotion  has  been  kindled 
and  their  hearts  comforted.  The  Psalter  has  been  in  the 
truest  sense  the  prayer-book  of  both  Jews  and  Christians." 

(2)  The  Book  of  Psalms  and  the  Rest  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment.   The  Book  of  Psalms  has  very  fittingly  been  called  the 
heart  of  the  Old  Testament,  or  even  of  the  entire  Bible.     In- 
deed, the  Psalms  sustain  a  very  intimate  relation  to  the  en- 
tire Old  Testament.     All  the  divine  manifestations  which  re- 
ceive a  more  objective  treatment  in  other  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  here  viewed  subjectively  in  their  bearing  and 
effect  upon  the  personal  experience  of  the  author  or  of  those 
in  whose  name  he  speaks.    The  moral  law  and  the  ritual  as 
a  means  of  approaching  God  are  glorified,  the  lessons  of  his- 
tory are  appropriated,  and  the  passion  for  truth  and  right- 
eousness as  preached  by  the  prophets  finds  vivid  expression, 
in  the  words  of  the  psalmists.     There  are  also  some  psalms 
which  reflect  the  influence  of  the  wisdom  movement,  both  in 
its  practical  and  speculative  aspects. 

(3)  Classification  of  the  Psalms  According  to  Subject  Mat- 
tqr.     A  classification  of  the  Psalms  according  to  their  con- 


io6  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

tents  is  almost  impossible,  because  individual  psalms  very 
frequently  present  a  mixed  character.  "We  find  rapture 
blend  with  pleading,  or  the  night  of  sorrow  lose  itself  in  the 
morning  of  joy,  mood  succeeding  mood,  and  experience  pass- 
ing into  experience  more  rapidly  than  the  sunshine  and  rain 
that  blend  and  pass  in  the  sweet  confusion  of  an  April  morn- 
ing. The  rehearsal  of  God's  mighty  acts,  which  one  genera- 
tion tells  to  another,  suddenly  breaks  away  into  penitence 
for  national  sin,  or  an  outburst  of  thanksgiving  which  abun- 
dantly utters  the  memory  of  His  great  goodness."  But 
though  recognizing  the  difficulty  of  the  task  and  the  fact  that 
any  classification  will  be  more  or  less  open  to  criticism,  a 
classification  along  broad  lines  may  be  suggestive.  Where 
the  classification  is  uncertain,  a  psalm  may  be  mentioned  in 
more  than  one  group. 

I.  PSALMS  WHICH  Do  NOT  REFLECT  A  SPECIFIC  HISTORICAL 
SITUATION. 

(1)  Hymns  in  praise  of  God,  as  Creator,  Governor,  and 
Protector  of  the  world  and  His  people,  suggested  by  the  con- 
templation of  His  manifestations  in  nature,  history,  and  per- 
sonal experience.    For  example:  Psalm  8,  God's  glory  mani- 
fested in  the  creation  of  man ;  19 :  1-6,  in  the  heavens ;  29,  in 
the  thunderstorm;  33,  in   His  moral  attributes,  in  creation, 
in  His  government,  in  His  choice  of  Israel.     To  the  same 
group    belong    36,    65,    66,    76,    92,    103,    104,    107,    145 — 147. 
Similar  in  tone  are  Psalm  24:7-10;  47,  67,  93,  96 — 100,  in, 
113,  US,  117,  n8,  134—136,  148—150;  but  these  differ  from 
the  preceding  in  that  they  contain  invocations  of  a  liturgical 
character. 

(2)  Experiences;  that  is,  Psalms  embodying  the  religious 
emotions    arising   from   the   poet's   intimate    fellowship    with 
Jehovah,  expressing  confidence,  resignation,  spiritual  yearn- 
ings, joy  in  God's  presence,  etc.:    16,  23,  26,  27,  42,  43,  62, 
33,  84,  91,  121,  127,  128,  130,  131,  133,  I38,  139.     Here  may 


THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  107 

be  mentioned  also  the  eulogies  of  the  law  of  Jehovah, 
19:7-14;  119.  In  some  psalms  promises  of  confidence  in 
the  future  are  added  to  the  expressions  descriptive  of  present 
emotions;  in  others,  petitions  that  Jehovah  will  judge  the 
wicked  who  are  trying  to  injure  the  psalmist:  9,  10,  II,  12, 
14,  52,  53,  58,  64,  75,  82,  94. 

(3)  Reflections:  (i)  On  God's  moral  government  of  the 
world — He  blesses  the  righteous  and  punishes  the  wicked: 
!»  34..  37,  90,  112.  (2)  The  same  with  a  marked  didactic 
purpose;  the  author  seeks  to  harmonize  his  belief  in  God's 
moral  government  of  the  world  with  the  apparent  inequalities 
of  life:  49,  73.  (3)  On  the  character  of  the  service  and 
conduct  acceptable  to  God:  15,  24:1-6;  32,  50. 

II.    PSALMS   REFLECTING  A   SPECIFIC   HISTORICAL   SITUATION. 

(l)  Personal  Psalms;  that  is,  psalms  reflecting  the  personal 
condition  of  the  psalmist,  either  as  an  individual  or  as  a  rep- 
resentative of  the  pious  community,  (i)  Petitions  for  help 
in  sickness,  persecution,  or  other  trouble,  or  for  forgiveness 
of  sin,  often  accompanied  by  expressions  of  assurance  that 
the  prayer  will  be  answered:  3 — 7,  13,  17,  22,  25,  27,  28, 
3i,  35,  38,  39,  40:11-17;  41,  Si,  54—57,  59,  61,  69,  70,  71, 
77,  86,  88,  109,  120,  140 — 142.  (2)  Thanksgiving  for  deliver- 
ance wrought:  18,  30,  40:1-10;  116,  144. 

(2)  National  Psalms;  that  is,  psalms  reflecting  conditions 
in  the  Holy  City,  or  the  religious  community,  or  the  nation, 
(i)  Complaints  of  national  oppression  or  disaster:  44,  60, 
74,  79,  80,  83,  85,  94,  102,  123,  137.  (2)  Thanksgivings 
for  mercies  already  received  or  promised :  46 — 48,  60,  66, 
68,  76,  107,  108,  114,  124 — 126,  129.  With  special  refer- 
ence to  Zion:  87,  122.  (3)  Retrospect  of  the  national  his- 
tory, with  special  reference  to  the  lessons  deducible  from 
it:  78,  81,  95,  105,  106. 

*     (3)  Royal  Psalms;  that  is,  psalms  centering  around  an 


io8  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

historical  or  ideal  ruler.  (l)  Thanksgiving,  good  wishes,  and 
promises:  2,  18,  20,  21,  45,  72,  no,  132.  (2)  Prayers  for 
his  preservation,  etc. :  89,  101. 

3.  Date  and  Authorship  of  the  Psalms.  The  question  of 
date  and  authorship  is  not  as  important  in  the  case  of  the 
Psalms  as  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  prophetic  books  and  other 
Old  Testament  writings.  A  psalm  remains  a  psalm,  and  may 
take  the  reader  into  the  presence  of  God,  no  matter  by  whom 
and  under  what  circumstances  it  was  written.  In  the  words 
of  Davison:  "The  universality  and,  if  we  may  say  so,  the 
timelessness  of  the  Psalter  are  amongst  its  prominent  char- 
acteristics. The  personal  elements  which  the  Psalms  contain 
are  soon  lost  in  the  impersonal,  the  finite  in  the  infinite.  The 
singer  seldom  lingers  long  amidst  the  streets  of  the  city, 
within  the  limits  of  a  single  nation  or  country,  among  the 
fields  and  the  homesteads;  he  soon  wings  his  flight  into  the 
upper  air,  from  whence  the  whole  familiar  landscape  dwin- 
dles to  a  mere  speck.  The  psalmist,  of  all  men,  is  alone 
with  God  and  his  own  soul."  Nevertheless  the  questions  of 
date  and  authorship  are  of  interest,  and  their  determination 
is  of  value.  In  the  first  place,  some  of  the  Psalms  are  the 
outgrowth  of  definite  historical  situations.  If  so,  they  must 
remain  more  or  less  unintelligible  unless  the  historical  back- 
ground can  be  determined.  Moreover,  though  all  the  Psalms 
breathe  the  spirit  of  a  living  faith  in  God,  they  do  show 
differences  in  religious  and  ethical  conception.  The  proper 
use  of  the  Psalms  is  dependent  upon  a  right  understanding 
of  the  different  stages  of  religious  conceptions  reflected  in 
the  several  psalms;  but  this  in  turn  depends  upon  fixing, 
approximately  at  least,  the  dates  of  the  psalms.  Unfortu- 
nately all  attempts  to  fix  the  dates  of  the  psalms  have  failed 
to  lead  to  certain  results ;  and  it  is  hardly  wise  to  say  more 
than  that  the  Psalms  originated  during  the  period  beginning 
with  David  and  ending  with  the  Maccabean  struggles  about 
150  B.  C.  The  following  are  named  as  authors  in  the  psalm 
titles,  which,  however,  are  not  integral  parts  of  the  Psalms: 


THE  DEVOTIONAL  LITERATURE  109 

1.  Moses  (90) I 

2.  David    (3-9,    11-32,    34-41,    51-65,   68-70,   86, 

101,  103,  108-110,   122,   124,   131,  133,   138- 

145)    73 

3.  Solomon    (72,    127)    2 

4.  Asaph   (50,  73-83)    12 

5.  Sons  of  Korah  (42,  44-49,  84,  85,  87,  88) II 

6.  Ethan  the  Ezrahite  (89)   l 

7.  Heman,  the  Ezrahite  (88,  also  ascribed  to  the 

Sons  of  Korah)   

Total    100 

4.  The  Compilation  of  the  Psalter.  The  Psalter  has 
rightly  been  called  the  hymn-book  of  the  second  temple. 
Whatever  differences  may  exist  between  it  and  a  modern 
hymnal — and  there  are  many,  since  the  Psalter  contains  many 
compositions  which  can  in  no  sense  be  called  hymns — the 
history  of  the  Psalter  is  similar  to  that  of  a  modern  hymnal 
"A  true  hymn-book,"  says  Davison,  "is  not  made,  it  grows." 
In  a  similar  manner  the  Psalter  has  reached  its  present  form 
as  the  result  of  a  process  of  growth.  It  would  seem  that 
individual  psalms  were  brought  together  into  small  collec- 
tions ;  these  small  collections  came  to  be  combined  into  three 
larger  collections,  which  were  united  into  one  book.  Then, 
at  a  later  time,  this  book  was  divided,  after  the  analogy  of 
the  Pentateuch,  into  five  books,  in  which  form  the  Psalter 
has  come  down  to  the  present 

Lesson  Outline: 

Poetry  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Essential  characteristics  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

Kinds  of  poetic  composition. 

Devotional  oooks  of  the  Old  Testament :  the  Book  of  Lam* 

entations ;  the  Book  of  Psalms. 

Classification  of  the  Psalms  according  to  subject  matter. 
Date  and  authorship  of  the  Psalms. 


Bibliography: 

Davison,  "The  Praises  of  Israel." 
Prothero,  "The  Psalms  in  Human  Life/ 
Hastings,  "One  Volume   Dictionary." 
•     Commentaries  :  "Psalms,"  Kirkpatrick. 


no  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Titles  and  superscriptions  of  the  Psalms. 

2.  Principal  religious  teachings  of  the  Psalms. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  Give  examples  of  secular  poems  in  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  What  are  the  essential  characteristics  of  Hebrew  poetry? 

3.  Distinguish  between  the  various  forms  of  parallelism  in 

Hebrew  poetry. 

4.  What  is  the  chief  form  of  poetic  composition  found  in  the 

Bible? 

5.  Discuss  the  origin  and  contents  of  the  Book  of  Lamenta- 

tions. 

6.  What  is  the  importance  of  Psalms  to  the  religious  life? 

7.  What  is  the  relation  of  the  Psalms  to  the  rest  of  the  Old 

Testament  ? 

8.  Discuss  the  classification  of  the  Psalms. 

9.  What  is  to  be  said  concerning  the  date  and  authorship  of 

the  Psalms? 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  OF  THE  OLD 

TESTAMENT 

1.  Philosophy  Among  the  Hebrews.     The  Wisdom  Lit- 
erature of  the  Old  Testament  corresponds  to  the  philosophic 
literature  of  other  peoples.     Philosophy,  in  the  narrow  sense, 
however,  had  no  existence  among  the  Hebrews,  for  a  process 
of  thinking  free  from  presuppositions  was  unknown  to  them. 
Two  fixed  points  were  universally  accepted  by  the  Hebrew 
thinkers:    (i)    The   existence   of  a   personal   God;    (2)    the 
reality  of  a  divine  revelation.     Accordingly  the  primary  aim 
of    Hebrew    philosophic    thought    was    simply    to    penetrate 
deeper  into  the  contents  of  these  truths,  la  define  them  more 
clearly,  and  to  apply  them  to  the  daily  life. 

While,  therefore,  in  a  strict  sense,  we  can  not  speak  of 
philosophic  literature  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  latter  con- 
tains a  kind  of  literature  which  presents  at  least  attempts  at 
philosophizing,  and  which  is  clearly  distinguished  from  other 
kinds  of  literature.  This  literature  includes  three  of  the 
canonical  books:  Job,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and,  according 
to  one  interpretation,  the  Song  of  Songs.  To  it  belong  also 
a  number  of  psalms  and  parts  of  other  Old  Testament  books. 

2.  The  Aim  and  Function  of  the  Wise  Men.     The  origin 
of  the  wisdom  literature  may  be  traced  in  the  last  analysis 
to  human  need  and  the  condescension  of  God  to  accommo- 
date Himself  to  the  peculiarities  of  men  in  His  attempt  to 
reach    their    hearts    and    consciences.      Some    men    may    be 
reached  by  an  authoritative  command  in  the  name  of  one 
ir^  whom  they  have  confidence.     Others  are  reached  by  way 

in 


«I2  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

of  their  aesthetic  sensibilities  through  the  ritual.  Personal  ex- 
perience may  rouse  the  dormant  emotions  of  still  others.  But 
there  always  have  been  and  still  are  those  whose  intellect 
must  be  carried,  in  part  at  least,  before  appeals  to  the  heart 
and  conscience  can  prove  effective.  Under  the  providence  of 
God  these  different  ways  of  approach  were  tried  under  the 
Old  Testament  dispensation.  The  prophet  came  with  the 
authoritative  "Thus  saith  Jehovah ;"  it  was  the  priest's  duty 
to  make  ritual's  appeal  effective ;  the  psalmist  gave  expres- 
sion to  personal  experience ;  and  the  wise  man  made  his 
appeal  to  the  intellect.  Certainly,  at  times  a  prophet  might 
assume  the  role  of  a  priest,  or  vice  versa,  or  the  psalmist 
might  fall  into  the  strain  of  the  wise  man,  or  other  inter- 
changes of  similar  character  might  take  place;  nevertheless 
certain  Old  Testament  references  (for  example,  Jer.  18:18) 
make  it  clear  that  the  wise  men  formed  a  distinct  class  of 
religious  workers  in  Israel  during  a  long  period. 

By  the  side  of  the  wise  men  whose  sayings  and  writings 
have  been  considered  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  canon,  there 
was  a  class  of  "false"  wise  men,  corresponding  to  the  false 
prophets  and  faithless  priests  against  whom  the  prophets 
hurl  such  severe  denunciations.  While  information  concern- 
ing this  class  of  men  is  not  very  extensive,  we  may  assume 
that  there  were  two  kinds  of  false  wise  men  as  there  were 
two  kinds  of  false  prophets:  (i)  The  mercenary  wise  men, 
who  called  evil  good  and  good  evil  from  selfish  motives.  If 
it  was  to  their  interest  to  twist  and  pervert  the  moral  pre- 
cepts commonly  recognized  as  true,  they  did  not  hesitate  tc, 
do  it.  (2)  The  political  wise  men.  These  may  have  been 
patriotic,  conscientious,  and  able  men,  but  they  lacked  spir- 
itual vision,  and  their  advice  was  wholly  determined  by 
narrow,  worldly,  and  Apolitical  considerations. 

3.  Growth  of  the  Wisdom  Movement.  The  wisdom 
movement  proper,  as  illustrated  in  the  Old  Testament,  found 
expression  at  first  m  very  simple  form.  The  wise  men  ac- 
cepted the  great  religious  truths  proclaimed  by  the  prophets  J 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  113 

it  was  their  business  to  apply  them  to  the  details  of  every- 
day life  and  instruct  their  contemporaries  in  that  application. 
They  did  an  important  and  necessary  work ;  they  pointed  out 
constantly  and  persistently  that  religion  can  not  be  separated 
from  the  daily  life.  But  the  wise  men  were  dealing  with 
persons  who,  as  far  as  the  great  mass  of  them  was  concerned, 
had  hardly  gone  beyond  the  childhood  stage  in  things  re- 
ligious and  ethical;  hence  they  must  put  the  most  profound 
truths  in  the  simplest  possible  form.  They  must  abstain,  as 
far  as  possible,  from  all  speculation,  and  confine  themselves 
to  simple,  practical  precepts  which  would  appeal  to  the  ordi- 
nary practical  common  sense  of  the  hearer.  Certainly,  in 
time  they  would  be  compelled  to  rise  above  simple  precepts 
and  try  to  solve  some  of  the  more  perplexing  problems  of 
life ;  en  the  other  hand,  there  would  always  be  a  demand  for 
the  more  simple  sayings  of  these  moral  guides.  The  Old 
Testament  contains  specimens  of  these  different  productions 
of  wisdom  activity.  The  Book  of  Proverbs  is  a  collection 
of  the  more  simple,  practical  precepts,  while  the  Books  of 
Job  and  Ecclesiastes  illustrate  speculative  wisdom. 

a.  Contents  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  The  Book  of  Prov- 
erbs consists  of  eight  parts,  of  unequal  length,  with  a  gen- 
eral heading;  seven  of  these  make  up  the  collection  of  prov- 
erbs ;  the  other,  the  first,  appears  to  be  prefixed  as  a  suitable 
introduction.  The  heading  is  1:1-6:  The  nature  and  object 
of  proverbial  wisdom.  I.  Chapter  i :  7 — 9 :  18.  Introduc- 
tion: The  Praise  of  Wisdom.  The  writer,  speaking  like  a 
father,  warns  his  son  or  disciple  against  the  temptations  and 
dangers  to  which  he  will  be  exposed,  invites  him  affection- 
ately to  listen  to  his  precepts,  and  commends  to  him  the 
claims  of  wisdom  to  be  his  guide  and  friend.  II.  Chapter 
10 :  i — 22 :  16.  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  A  collection  of  mis- 
cellaneous aphorisms  on  life  and  conduct.  It  contains 
some  fine  religious  proverbs,  but  the  generalizations  are 
mostly  drawn  from  secular  life,  and  describe  the  fortune 
Which  may  be  expected  to  attend  particular  lines  of  conduct 
8 


U4  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

or  types  of  character.  III.  Chapter  22:17—24:22.  The 
Words  of  the  Wise.  In  contents  this  collection  is  similar  to 
the  preceding;  it  differs,  however,  in  form;  for  it  is  "less 
a  collection  of  individual  proverbs  than  a  body  of  maxims, 
in  which  proverbs  are  interwoven,  addressed  with  a  practical 
aim  to  an  individual  and  worked  up  usually  into  a  more  or 
less  consecutive  argument."  Its  tone,  also,  is  more  hortatory 
than  that  of  the  preceding  section.  IV.  Chapter  24:23-34, 
which  has  the  title,  "These  are  also  sayings  of  the  wise." 
An  appendix  to  the  preceding,  displaying  similar  variety  of 
form.  V.  Chapter  25 :  1—29 : 27.  Has  the  title,  "These  are 
also  proverbs  of  Solomon,  which  the  tnen  of  Hezekiah,  king 
of  Judah,  copied  out."  Meant  as  an  appendix  to  Section  II, 
but  shows  some  differences.  On  the  whole,  the  proverbs 
appear  to  spring  from  a  changed  state  of  society.  Religious 
proverbs  are  rare.  VI.  Chapter  30:1-33.  "The  words  of 
Agur,  son  of  Jakeh,  the  oracle."  A  series  of  epigrams,  from 
two  to  ten  lines  each.  In  verses  I  to  9  the  divine  transcend- 
ence is  the  subject.  Verses  10  to  33  consist  of  nine  groups 
of  proverbs,  each  of  which  describes  some  quality  or  charac- 
ter in  terms  of  either  warning  or  commendation.  VII.  Chap- 
ter 3"! :  1-9.  "The  words  of  Lemuel,  a  king;  the  oracle  which 
his  mother  taught  him."  A  series  of  maxims  addressed  to 
Lemuel  by  his  mother,  warning  him  against  sensuality  and 
immoderate  indulgence  in  wine,  and  exhorting  him  to  relieve 
the  necessities  and  defend  the  cause  of  the  poor.  VIII.  Chap- 
ter 31 :  10-31.  An  alphabetic  acrostic,  without  any  title.  The 
description  of  a  capable  and  virtuous  housewife. 

The  date  of  the  separate  proverbs,  and  the  compilation  of 
these  into  collections,  and  finally  into  the  present  Book  of 
Proverbs,  is  not  easily  determined.  The  process  may  have 
been  similar  to  that  in  which  the  Psalter  was  formed.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  the  Proverbs  originated  during 
the  period  beginning  with  Solomon  and  ending  with  the 
Maccabean  uprising.  The  period  of  compilation  lies  prob- 
ably between  about  350  and  150  B.  C. 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  115 

b.  Permanent  Value  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  There  are 
two  phases  of  religion :  the  one  internal,  the  religious  expe- 
rience ;  the  other  external,  the  religious  life.  The  two  go 
together,  though  at  times  the  one,  at  times  the  other,  may 
receive  special  emphasis.  The  authors  of  the  Proverbs  em- 
phasize chiefly  the  latter.  They  teach  the  most  difficult  of 
all  lessons :  how  to  practice  religion,  how  to  fulfill  the  duties 
and  overcome  the  temptations  of  every-day  life.  But  these 
•wise  men  rested  their  practical  teaching  upon  a  religious 
basis.  Underneath  all  their  teaching  there  is  a  firm  belief 
in  the  existence  of  a  righteous  God  and  the  reality  of  His 
rule  over  the  world,  as  also  in  the  other  great  religious 
verities  taught  by  the  prophets.  Far  from  disregarding  re- 
ligion, the  writers  of  the  Proverbs  sought  to  make  it  the 
controlling  motive  of  life  and  conduct.  A  profound  religious 
spirit  pervades  the  whole  book;  but  in  addition  there  are 
many  passages  (for  example,  3:5-7;  16:3,  6,  9;  or  23:17) 
which  give  definite  expression  to  the  lofty  religious  concep- 
tions of  the  wise  men.  Nevertheless,  as  is  natural  in  view 
of  the  purpose  of  the  wise  men,  greater  stress  is  laid  upon 
ethics,  the  practice  of  religion.  Nothing  and  no  relation  of 
life  seems  to  have  escaped  the  attention  of  the  writers.  Pre- 
cepts are  given  concerning  ordinary  every-day  conduct  (for 
example,  10:4;  11:28;  12:10;  14:3),  the  relations  of  men 
to  their  fallows  (n:  i;  14:21;  17:5),  domestic  relations  and 
happiness  (6:20-22;  18:22;  31:10-31),  national  life  and  the 
proper  attitude  toward  the  government  (14:34,  35;  16: 
12-15),  and  other  relations  and  interests  of  life.  The  per- 
manent value  of  the  book  is  suggested  in  these  words  of 
Davison :  "For  the  writers  of  Proverbs  religion  means  good 
sense,  religion  means  mastery  of  affairs,  religion  means 
strength  and  manliness  and  success,  religion  means  a  well- 
furnished  intellect  employing  the  best  means  to  accomplish 
the  highest  ends.  There  is  a  healthy,  vigorous  tone  about 
this  kind  of  teaching  which  is  never  out  of  date,  but  which, 
hujnan  nature  being  what  it  is,  is  only  too  apt  to  disappear, 


Ii6  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

in   the   actual  presentation    of   religion   in    the   Church,   on 
earth." 

4.  Speculative  Wisdom  in   the    Old  Testament.       From 
simple  practical  precepts  the  wise  men  rose  to   speculation. 
Their  speculative  philosophy  is  theistic,  for  it  starts  from  the 
presupposition  that  there  is  a  personal   God.     Some  traces 
of  speculation  are  found  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  especially 
in  the  first  nine  chapters.     It  is   seen  also  in   some  of  the 
historical  books,  for  example,  in  the  Book  of  Judges,  which 
furnishes  a  philosophy  of  the  history  of  the  period  of  the 
Judges  in  the  light  of  a  firm  belief  in  Jehovah.     Speculative 
philosophy  appears  also  in  the  prophetic  literature;   for  ex- 
ample, Amos  3 : 6,  "Shall  calamity  befall  a  city,  and  Jehovah 
hath  not  done  it?"     The  same  prophet  indulges  in  specula- 
tion  when   he   explains   the   natural    phenomena    of    famine, 
drought,   blasting  and   mildew,   and   others,    as    punishments 
for  Israel's  disobedience    (4:6-11).     Of  similar  character  is 
Isaiah  9:8-21.     Other  specimens   of  well-sustained    specula- 
tion are  offered  by  Habakkuk   1:1 — 2:5  and  Malachi  2:17 
— 4:3,  and  other  prophetic  books   show  traces   of  it.     The 
wisdom  movement,  both  in  its  practical  and  speculative  as- 
pects, is  reflected  also  in  some  of  the  psalms.    The  most  im- 
portant of  these  are  i,  8,  15,  19,  29,  37,  49,  50,  73,  90,  92, 
103,   104,   107,   139,   147,   148.     Of  the  wisdom  books  proper, 
two  are  entirely  given  up  to  speculation :   Job  and   Ecclesi- 
astes.     The    former   deals    with    the   perplexing   problem    of 
evil  and  suffering,  the  latter  with  the  perplexities  of  life  in 
general 

5.  The  Book  of  Job.     a.    Origin.     The    Book    of    Job 
recounts  how  Job,  a  man  of  exemplary  piety,  was  overtaken 
by  an  unprecedented  series  of  calamities,  and  it  reports  the 
debate  between  Job  and  other  speakers  to  which  the  occa- 
sion is  supposed  to  have  given  rise.     The  experiences  of  the 
perfect  Job  raised  the  perplexing  question,  How  can  the  suf- 
fering of  a  righteous  man  be  harmonized  with  the  belief  in 
a  holy  and  just  God?     The  popular  view,  reflected  in  the 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  ny 

greater  portion  of  the  Old  Testament,  was  that  suffering 
was  always  a  punishment  for  sin,  prosperity  a  reward  fof 
piety.  Such  belief  seemed  in  accord  with  the  righteousness 
of  Jehovah.  Undoubtedly  exceptions  to  the  rule  might  be 
noted,  but  as  long  as  the  individual  was  looked  upon  simply 
as  an  atom  in  the  national  unit,  the  apparent  inequalities  in 
the  fortunes  of  individuals  would  not  constitute  a  pressing 
problem.  When,  however,  especially  through  the  teaching  of 
Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel,  the  individual  received  proper  recog- 
nition, an  experience  like  that  of  Job  was  bound  to  create 
difficulties,  for  the  suffering  of  a  righteous  man  would  seem 
to  point  to  unfairness  on  the  part  of  God.  That  this  per- 
plexity was  felt  is  seen  from  allusions  in  the  prophetic  books. 
At  last  the  time  came  when  a  wise  man  in  Israel  sought  to 
solve  the  problem  in  the  light  of  the  religious  knowledge  he 
possessed.  He  took  as  the  basis  of  his  discussion  the  ex- 
perience of  Job,  the  tradition  of  which  he  may  have  found 
a  popular  possession.  This  material  he  arranged  in  the  form 
of  a  drama,  in  which  different  speakers  are  introduced,  each 
suggesting  his  own  solution  of  the  problem.  The  author  of 
the  book  is  not  known,  and  its  date  is  a  matter  of  dispute ; 
however,  a  date  in  the  post-exilic  period  seems  to  be  the 
most  probable. 

b.  Contents  of  the  Book  of  Job.  The  Book  of  Job  falls 
naturally  into  five  parts  of  unequal  length :  I.  Chapters  I,  2. 
The  Prologue  (written  in  prose).  The  adversary  is  per- 
mitted by  God  to  test  Job's  righteousness  by  depriving  him 
of  his  wealth  and  children,  and  afflicting  him  with  a  loath- 
some disease.  Job  remains  faithful.  His  three  friends  come 
to  comfort  him.  II.  Chapters  3 — 31.  Debate  between  Job 
and  his  friends.  Moved  by  the  unspoken  sympathy  of  his 
friends,  Job  breaks  forth  in  a  passionate  cry,  cursing  the  day 
of  his  birth  and  praying  for  death  (3).  This  outburst  of 
feeling  gives  occasion  to  his  friends  to  speak,  and  so  opens 
the  debate.  There  are  three  cycles  of  speeches  (4 — 14; 
i$-*-2i;  22 — 31):  in  the  first  two  the  three  friends  of 


ji8  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Job  speak,  and  Job  replies  to  each;  in  the  third  Zophar  is 
absent,  but  Job  speaks  three  times.  III.  Chapters  32 — 37. 
The  speeches  of  Elihu.  Elihu,  a  young  man  who  is  repre- 
sented as  a  bystander,  has  listened  to  the  debate  and,  vexed 
with  both  Job  and  his  friends,  steps  forward  to  set  both 
right.  IV.  Chapters  38 :  I — 42 :  6.  The  speeches  of  Jehovah, 
and  Job's  submission.  When  Elihu  refrains  from  speaking, 
Jehovah  intervenes  and  answers  Job  out  of  the  whirlwind. 
The  answer  consists  of  two  parts,  each  followed  by  a  few 
words  from  Job.  The  aim  of  Jehovah's  speeches  is  to  bring 
Job,  who  has  shown  himself  impatient,  back  into  a  right 
attitude  of  mind  toward  God.  This  is  accomplished,  for  he 
admits  the  folly  of  his  doubts  and  solemnly  retracts  his  hasty 
and  ill-considered  words.  V.  Chapter  42:7-17.  The  epi- 
logue. When  Job  is  restored  to  a  right  attitude  of  mind  he 
receives  the  divine  commendation,  while  the  friends  are  con- 
demned for  their  foolish  utterances.  Then  Job  is  blessed 
with  prosperity  twice  as  great  as  he  enjoyed  before. 

c.  The  Problem  of  the  Book  of  Job  and  Its  Solution.  The 
problem  discussed  by  the  author  of  the  Book  of  Job  is :  How 
can  the  sufferings  of  a  righteous  man  be  harmonized  with  a 
belief  in  a  holy  and  righteous  God?  Various  solutions  of 
this  problem  are  suggested  in  different  parts  of  the  book: 
I.  The  solution  of  the  prologue — Suffering  is  a  test  of  char- 
acter. 2.  The  solution  of  the  friends — Suffering  is  always 
punishment  for  sin.  3.  The  solution  of  Job — Job  struggles 
long  and  persistently  with  the  problem ;  a  few  times  he  seems 
to  have  a  glimpse  of  a  possible  straightening-out  of  the  pres- 
ent inequalities  in  an  after  life,  but  it  is  only  a  glimpse;  he 
always  sinks  back  to  a  feeling  of  uncertainty  and  perplexity. 
His  general  attitude  is  that  there  must  be  something  out  of 
gear  in  the  world,  for  the  righteousness  of  God  can  not  be 
discerned  as  things  are  going  now.  4.  The  solution  of 
Elihu— Elihu  agrees  with  the  friends  that  suffering  is  closely 
connected  with  sin ;  but  he  emphasizes  more  than  they  the  dis- 
ciplinary purpose  of  suffering,  which,  he  points  out,  is  the 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  119 

voice  of  God  warning  men  to  return  to  God.  5.  The  solution 
of  Jehovah — The  whole  universe  is  an  unfathomable  mystery, 
in  which  the  evil  is  no  more  perplexing  than  the  good.  In 
the  presence  of  all  mysteries  the  proper  attitude  is  one  of 
humble  submission.  6.  The  solution  of  the  epilogue — Returns 
to  the  opinion  of  the  friends,  for  it  teaches  that  righteousness 
will  sooner  or  later  be  rewarded  with  prosperity  even  in  this 
world. 

The  author  nowhere  states  which  of  these  conclusions  he 
accepts  as  true ;  indeed,  the  book  leaves  the  impression  that 
the  author  is  conscious  of  his  inability  to  present  an  entirely 
satisfactory  solution.  One  thing  alone  seems  certain,  that 
he  means  to  reject  most  emphatically  the  traditional  view 
defended  by  the  friends,  that  suffering  must  always  be  ex- 
plained as  punishment  for  sin.  The  Book  of  Job  presents 
the  best  that  the  human  mind  can  do  with  a  problem  whichi 
has  perplexed  men  throughout  the  ages;  and  it  shows  at\ 
the  same  time  that  the  only  solution  possible  is  a  solution  ( 
of  faith,  with  a  lofty  conception  of  God  and  a  vision  of  life 
broad  enough  to  include  eternity,  when  the  apparent  inequali- 
ties  of  this  life  may  be  adjusted  by  a  loving  and  righteous 
God. 

6.  The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes.  a.  Contents.  The  Book  of 
Ecclesiastes  consists  of  a  prologue,  an  epilogue,  and  the  body 
of  the  book  in  four  parts.  I.  Chapter  i:  i-n.  The  Prologue. 
Statement  of  the  problem:  On  the  assumption  that  there  is 
no  hereafter  and  that  man's  deepest  longings  must  be  satis- 
fied here,  the  author  declares  all  human  efforts  in  that  di- 
rection in  vain.  II.  Chapter  i :  12 — 12 :  8.  Proof  of  this 
contention.  (i)  Chapter  1:12 — 2:26.  Wisdom,  pleasure, 
and  riches  are  vanity.  (2)  Chapters  3 :  I — 5 :  19.  Every- 
thing is  foreordained;  death  is  preferable  to  a  life  that  is 
spent  in  vain  struggle  with  the  foreordained  nature  of  things. 
Nothing  is  left  but  to  make  the  best  of  the  few  fleeting  years 
and  enjoy  them.  (3)  Chapters  6:1 — 8:15.  Wealth  can 
not  overrule  providence.  Common  sense  is  staggered  when 


no  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

it  beholds  the  inequalities  of  life.  There  is  no  solution ;  eat, 
drink,  and  be  merry.  (4)  Chapters  8:  16 — 12:8.  Summing 
up  of  the  author's  findings :  "Vanity  of  vanities,  saith  the 
preacher;  all  is  vanity."  Therefore  let  the  young  man  re- 
joice in  his  youth,  yet  not  so  as  to  forget  his  responsibility 
to  his  Maker.  III.  Chapter  12 : 9-14.  The  Epilogue — the 
author's  conclusion:  (i)  Verses  9,  10.  The  aim  of  the  wise 
man  in  committing  his  meditations  to  writing  has  been  to 
communicate  his  wisdom  to  others.  (2)  Verses  n,  12.  The 
reader  is  urged  to  heed  the  sayings  of  the  wise  man  and  be 
content  with  the  teaching  of  the  book.  (3)  Verses  13,  14. 
The  one  supreme  care  of  man :  Fear  God  and  keep  His  com- 
mandments. 

The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes  is  one  of  the  latest  books  in  the 
Old  Testament  canon.  The  ascription  to  Solomon  is,  there- 
fore, a  literary  device,  which  the  author  is  not  careful  to 
maintain. 

b.  Significance  of  Ecclesiastes.  The  author  of  the  Book 
of  Ecclesiastes  has  passed  through  many  disappointments, 
and  his  spirit  has  grown  somewhat  skeptical  and  pessimistic. 
Everything  has  proved  vanity:  riches,  pleasure,  honor,  even 
the  search  for  wisdom;  and  he  is  not  sure  concerning  his 
destiny  after  death.  But  over  against  his  experiences  in  life 
there  is  a  faith  in  God  who  governs  the  world.  The  book, 
which  portrays  the  struggle  between  experience  and  faith, 
has  aptly  been  called  "a  cry  for  light."  The  author  does  not 
see  the  light  clearly,  though  here  and  there  he  may  have  a 
glimpse  of  it.  The  real  perplexity  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  author's  horizon  is  bounded  by  the  grave.  In  this  life 
he  sees  no  hope,  therefore  he  looks  with  longing  for  a  pos- 
sible reckoning  in  an  after  life;  but  it  remains  a  hope  and 
cry,  it  never  grows  into  a  conviction.  The  more  significant  is 
the  retention  of  his  faith  in  God.  He  is  conscious  of  a  moral 
order  in  the  world,  though  its  operation  is  often  frustrated; 
he  is  aware  of  cases  in  which  the  God-fearing  man  had  an 
advantage  over  others.  Hence,  with  all  his  uncertainty  and 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE  121 

doubt,  he  holds  that  it  is  his  duty  and  the  duty  of  every 
one  else,  to  fear  God  and  keep  His  commandments;  God 
somehow  will  care  for  the  mysteries  and  perplexities  of 
life. 

7.  The  Song  of  Songs,  a.  Different  Interpretations.  The 
Song  of  Songs,  also  called  Song  of  Solomon,  owes  its  place 
in  the  canon  of  Sacred  Scripture  to  the  allegorical  interpre- 
tation given  to  it  from  the  earliest  times.  The  Jews  inter- 
preted it  as  picturing  the  close  relation  existing  between 
Jehovah  and  Israel;  the  Christians,  as  picturing  the  intimate 
fellowship  between  Christ  and  His  bride,  the  Church.  At 
present  it  is  quite  generally  held  that  this  interpretation 
does  not  do  justice  to  the  primary  purpose  of  the  book ;  but 
as  to  its  original  purpose  two  different  views  are  held.  Ac- 
cording to  both  interpretations  the  subject  of  the  book  is 
love,  human  love;  the  differences  of  opinion  are  with  refer- 
ence to  the  manner  in  which  the  subject  is  treated.  Some 
think  that  the  book  is  simply  a  collection  of  love  or  wedding 
songs,  all  independent  of  one  another.  Others  feel  that  there 
are  too  many  evidences  of  real  unity  in  the  book  to  permit 
this  interpretation;  they  see  in  the  book  a  didactic  drama  or 
melodrama,  the  aim  of  the  author  being  the  glorification  of 
true  human  love. 

The  drama  centers  around  three  principal  characters: 
Solomon,  the  Shunammite  maiden,  and  her  shepherd  lover. 
The  book  relates  how  the  maiden,  surprised  by  the  king  and 
his  train,  was  brought  to  the  palace  in  Jerusalem,  where  the 
king  hoped  to  win  her  affections  and  to  induce  her  to  ex- 
change her  rustic  home  for  the  enjoyment  and  honor  the 
court  life  affords.  She  has,  however,  already  pledged  her 
heart  to  a  young  shepherd ;  and  the  admiration  and  blandish- 
ments which  the  king  lavishes  upon  her  are  powerless  to 
make  her  forget  him.  In  the  end  she  is  permitted  to  return 
to  her  mountain  home,  where  at  the  close  of  the  poem  the 
lovers  appear  hand  in  hand  and  express,  in  warm,  glowing 
wfords,  the  superiority  of  genuine  spontaneous  affection. 


122  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

b.  The  Aim  of  the  Song  of  Songs.  To  indicate  the  aim 
of  the  author  I  can  do  no  better  than  quote  at  some  length 
from  Professor  Rothstein:  "The  real  aim  of  the  Song  of 
Songs,"  says  he,  "is  to  glorify  true  love,  and,  more  spe- 
cifically, true  betrothed  love,  which  remains  steadfast  even 
in  the  most  dangerous  and  most  seductive  situations.  The 
author,  as  we  may  perhaps  assume  with  certainty,  found  the 
material  for  his  work  in  the  story  of  Abishag  of  Shunem 
(l  Kings  i,  2).  She  remained  true  to  the  beloved  of  her 
heart,  she  steadily  repelled  all  the  advances  of  Solomon,  into 
whose  harem  she  had  been  brought,  and  finally  she  tri- 
umphed, was  conducted  home,  and  restored  to  her  lover  per- 
fectly pure.  The  poem  makes  two  presuppositions — one  be- 
ing that  the  Shunammite's  heart  belonged  to  a  youth  in  her 
own  home,  and  the  other  that,  meanwhile,  against  her  will, 
she  had  been  brought  into  the  royal  apartments.  The  dra- 
matical exposition  commences  at  the  time  when  the  first 
meeting  of  the  king  with  the  maiden  is  close  at  hand,  and 
actually  takes  place.  The  dialogue  between  the  Shunam- 
mite  and  the  daughters  of  Jerusalem  (the  wives  and  maidens 
belonging  to  the  royal  harem)  in  1 : 2-8  serves  to  pave  the 
way,  in  true  dramatic  fashion,  for  that  meeting,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  explain  the  true  inward  disposition  of  the 
Shunammite  toward  the  approaching  royal  suitor,  which  the 
poet  henceforward  makes  her  retain  without  wavering.  If, 
now,  we  would  understand  aright  the  further  structure  of 
the  poem,  it  must  be  observed  that  the  scheme  chosen  by  the 
author  for  the  poetical  disposition  of  his  material  is  based 
upon  the  different  stages  in  the  courtship  and  the  marriage 
festivities,  down  to  the  moment  when  alone  the  real  victory 
of  loyal  love,  the  preservation  of  bridely  honor  in  the  face 
of  all  temptations  and  assaults,  was  evidenced,  and  could  be 
evidenced,  namely,  the  morning  after  the  bridal  night  passed 
with  the  real  lover."  (Compare  Deut  22: 13ff.) 


THE  WISDOM  LITERATURE 

Lesson  Outline: 

Philosophy  among  the  Hebrews. 

The  aim  and  function  of  the  Wise  Men. 

The  growth  of  the  Wisdom  movement. 

Contents  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 

Permanent  value  of  the  book. 

Speculative  wisdom  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  origin  of  the  Book  of  Job. 

Outline,  subject,  and  teaching  of  the  Book  of  Job. 

Contents  and  significance  of  Ecclesiastes. 

Different  interpretations  and  aim  of  the  Song  of  Songs. 


Bibliography: 

Davison,  "The  Wisdom   Literature  of  the   Old  Testament." 
Hastings,  ''One  Volume  Dictionary." 

Commentaries  :   '"Job,"  Davidson ;   "Proverbs,"  Toy ;  "Eccle« 
siastes,"  Plumptre;    "Song  of  Songs,"  Harper. 

Topics  for  Special  Study : 

1.  Scope  and  definition  of  the  term  "Wisdom." 

2.  The  sage  and  the  prophet. 

3.  The  teachings  of  Wisdom  and  the  teaching  of  Jesus. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

i.  Characterize  Hebrew  Wisdom. 

z.  Discuss  the  purpose  and  method  of  the  Wise. 

3.  Outline  the  contents  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 

4.  What  do  the  Proverbs  principally  deal  with  ? 

5.  What  was  the  next  stage  in  the  development  of  Wisdom 

beyond  the  simple  proverb? 

6.  What  gave  rise  to  the  problem  which  forms  the  subject  of 

the  Book  of  Job? 

7.  The  solutions  of  the  problem  proposed  in  the  Book  of  Job. 

8.  Discuss  the  view-point  of  the  author  of  Ecclesiastes. 

9.  Give  the  different  interpretations  of  the  Song  of  Songs 
lo.  What  is  the  aim  of  the  book? 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  HEBREW   PROPHETS  TO  THE  CLOSE  OF 
THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY  B.  C. 

1.  The  Nature  and  Function  of  Hebrew  Prophecy.      The 

Hebrew  prophet  was  a  divinely  sent  messenger,  whose  duty 
it  was  to  make  known  the  will  and  purpose  of  Jehovah  to 
the  chosen  people  (Amos  3:7,  8.  Compare  Ex.  4:  16;  7:  i). 
While  the  name  prophet  does  not  necessarily  imply  the  idea 
of  prediction,  the  latter  is  not  excluded,  for  God  might  de- 
sire to  make  known  His  will  concerning  the  past,  the  present, 
or  the  future;  in  the  last  case  the  utterance  of  the  prophet 
must  take  the  form  of  prediction.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  the  predictive  element  is  not  the  most  important 
in  prophecy,  and  the  prophet  was  far  more  a  forth-teller 
than  a  foreteller. 

2.  Moses  the  First  Great  Prophet  of  Israel.      The   first 
great  Hebrew  prophet  was  Moses.     We  are  accustomed  to 
think  of  him  as  a  law-giver  and  author ;  but  his  chief  glory  is 
rather   that   he   was   the   first   and   greatest   prophet   of  the 
Old  Testament  dispensation.    Moses  did  two  things:   (i)   He 
organized  the  heterogeneous  elements  that  came  forth  from 
Egypt  into  a  national  unity.     (2)    He  gave  to  this  unity  a 
practical  monotheism.     In  this  we  see  the  twofold   activity 
common  to  all  the  prophets,  national  and  religious,  with  the 
emphasis  upon  the  latter,  for  the  basis  of  the  national  union 
was  the  recognition  of  Jehovah  as  the  one  God  of  Israel. 
Certainly,  in  the  beginning   Moses    had  to   do    some  things 
which  at  a  later  time  were  assigned  to  separate  officials.     In 

124 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY   PROPHETS  125 

reality  Moses  filled  a  fourfold  office:  (i)  He  was  a  prophet; 
(2)  a  priest;  (3)  a  law-giver;  (4)  a  political  leader.  As 
such  he  laid  the  foundation  for  the  political,  social,  and  re- 
ligious life  of  the  Hebrews. 

3.  From  Moses  to  Elijah  and  Elisha.  The  records  of  the 
period  of  the  Judges  mention  only  two  persons  as  occupying 
the  prophetic  office:  Deborah,  the  prophetess  (Judges  4:4), 
and  an  unnamed  prophet  (6:8);  but  toward  the  close  of 
the  period,  during  the  Philistine  crisis,  the  sons  of  the 
prophets  appeared  in  great  numbers,  and  under  the  leadership 
of  Samuel  they  played  an  important  part  in  the  events  cul- 
minating in  the  election  of  Saul  as  king  over  Israel.  For  a 
time  the  prophetic  influence  continued  to  make  itself  felt, 
but  in  time  Saul,  whose  lot  was  cast  with  the  political  and 
military  party  rather  than  with  the  representatives  of  Je- 
hovah, gave  evidence  that  he  was  unwilling  to  abide  by  the 
policy  of  the  religious  party.  Samuel  considered  this  a  se- 
rious religious  danger,  and  David,  a  man  after  God's  own 
heart,  who  might  be  expected  to  follow  the  prophetic  lead- 
ing, was  anointed  king.  During  the  next  few  generations  the 
prophets  appear  upon  the  scene  but  rarely,  but  Nathan 
(2  Sam.  12:  iff;  i  Kings  1:11)  and  Gad  (2  Sam.  24:nff) 
are  worthy  successors  of  Samuel.  The  next  political  event 
of  importance  was  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  and  again 
the  prophets  took  an  active  interest.  In  accord  with  their 
general  policy,  they  favored  the  division  (i  Kings  n:2O,ff; 
I2:22ff),  because  they  were  convinced  that  a  continuation 
of  the  policy  of  Solomon  would  result  in  the  loss  of  true 
religion,  and  they  were  willing  to  sacrifice  the  State,  if  only 
the  religion  of  Jehovah  could  be  saved. 

The  hopes  of  the  prophets  were  not  fully  realized,  for 
the  kings  of  the  northern  kingdom  were  by  no  means  all 
ardent  worshipers  of  Jehovah.  In  name  He  continued  to  be 
the  God  of  Israel,  but  the  conduct  of  the  kings,  who  found 
ready  imitators  among  the  people,  was  not  such  as  to  allay 
th£  fears  of  the  zealous  Jehovah  prophets.  As  a  result,  con- 


J26  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

flicts  between  the  political  and  religious  parties  broke  out 
afresh,  which  reached  their  culmination  in  the  days  of  Ahab 
(about  875-853).  Ahab  married  Jezebel,  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Tyre,  an  ardent  worshiper  of  the  Baal  of  Tyre. 
Since  the  king  took  little  interest  in  Jehovah  worship,  she  soon 
gained  many  concessions  from  him  which  gave  a  prominent 
place  to  her  god  Baal.  The  great  mass  of  the  people,  seeing 
the  indifference  of  the  king,  followed  the  example  of  her 
who  represented  to  them  by  her  enthusiasm  and  zeal  the 
policy  of  the  court,  and  so  did  the  false  prophets,  who 
thought  that  their  personal  interests  demanded  loyalty  to  the 
ruling  power.  To  permit  the  worship  of  another  deity  by 
the  side  of  Jehovah  was  considered  treason  by  the  true 
prophets.  The  crisis  called  forth  two  great  representatives 
of  the  God  of  Israel — Elijah  and  Elisha — who,  each  in  his 
own  way,  boldly  and  fearlessly  carried  on  the  struggle,  until 
they  finally  succeeded  in  driving  the  hated  worship  from  Is- 
rael and  the  faithless  dynasty  from  the  throne.  Once  more 
the  nation  came  to  acnkowledge  Jehovah  as  its  one  and  only 
God.  Succeeding  prophets  still  found  it  necessary  to  coun- 
teract the  tendency  to  apostatize  from  Jehovah,  but  their 
chief  duty  was  to  set  in  a  clearer  light  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  Jehovah  and  His  purpose  for  Israel  and  mankind. 

4.   The  Literary  Prophets  and  Their  Approximate  Dates. 
L  The  eighth-century  prophets,  or  the  prophets  of  the  As- 
syrian period: 

1.  In  Israel— Amos,  about  755;  Hosea,  about  750-735. 

The  kings  of  Israel  during  this  period  were  Jero- 
boam II,  Zechariah,  Shallum,  Menahem,  Pekahiah, 
Pekah. 

2.  In  Judah— Isaiah,  about  740-700;  Micah,  about  735 
to  700. 

The  kings  of  Judah  during  this  period  were  U«« 
ziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  Hezekiah. 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY   PROPHETS  127 

II.  The  seventh-century  prophets,  or  the  prophets  of  the 
Chaldean  period  (all  in  Judah;  the  northern  kingdom 
fell  in  722/721):  Jeremiah,  about  626-586;  Zephaniah, 
about  626;  Nahum,  about  608;  Habakkuk,  about  600. 

The  kings  of  Judah  were  Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  Jehoi- 
akim,  Jehoiachin,  Zedekiah. 

III.  The  prophets  of  the  Exile:   Ezekiel,  593-570;   Obadiah, 
after  586;  Isaiah,  4off.  reflect  the  historical  background 
of  about  545  B.  C. 

IV.  The  prophets  after  the   Exile:    Haggai,   520;    Zechariah 
(the  author   of  chapters  i — 8),   520-518;    Malach'i,   about 
450;  Joel,  about  400;  the  author  or  authors  of  Zechariah 
9 — 14,   after   350;   Jonah,  about   400-250;   Daniel,  about 

168  B.  C. 

— ) 

5.  The  Task  of  the  Eighth-Century  Prophets.  The  early 
part  of  the  eighth  century  was  a  period  of  extraordinary  pros- 
perity for  both  Israel  and  Judah;  but,  as  is  frequently  the 
case,  the  material  prosperity  brought  great  evils  in  its  train. 
The  prophetic  writings  of  the  period  make  it  plain  that  Jeho- 
vah religion  was  threatened  by  two  serious  perils:  (i)  moral 
and  religious  corruption,  due  to  a  wrong  conception  of  the 
character  of  Jehovah ;  (2)  the  successes  of  the  Assyrians, 
which  were  to  the  great  mass  of  people  an  evidence  of  the  su- 
perior strength  of  the  Assyrian  deities,  and  might  lead  to  a 
transfer  of  affection  and  homage  from  Jehovah  to  them.  Either 
danger  threatened  the  very  life  of  Jehovah  religion.  All  four 
eighth-century  prophets  were  convinced  that  the  only  remedy 
was  a  right  conception  of  the  nature  and  character  of  their 
God;  and  this  they  proceeded  to  supply;  (i)  All  emphasized 
the  universality  of  the  Divine  sway,  and  declared  that  the  suc- 
cesses of  the  Assyrians  were  not  due  to  Jehovah's  weakness, 
but  to  the  people's  sins,  which  compelled  Jehovah  to  send 
judgment  upon  them,  and  this  judgment  was  to  be  executed 
by  the  Assyrians.  (2)  They  all  sought  to  impress  upon  the 
people  a  more  adequate  conception  of  the  character  of  Je- 


128  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

hovah,  each  emphasizing  that  phase  of  the  divine  character 
which  he  considered  best  adapted  to  his  day  and  generation. 
Amos  laid  special  stress  upon  the  righteousness  of  Jehovah, 
Hosea  upon  His  love,  Isaiah  upon  His  holiness  and  majesty, 
Micah  upon  the  Divine  judgments. 

a.  The  Prophet  Amos  and  His  Message.  Amos  was  the 
first  of  the  eighth-century  prophets,  in  chronological  order. 
He  was  not  a  prophet  by  education  or  profession  (7:  14),  but 
a  herdsman  and  a  "dresser  of  sycftnore  trees"  (i:  i;  7:  14). 
It  was  while  following  his  daily  occupation  that  the  Divine 
call  came  to  him  to  leave  his  home,  Tekoa,  in  Judah,  and 
preach  to  the  northern  kingdom,  Israel.  He  left  his  flocks 
and  sycomore  groves  and  journeyed  to  Bethel,  the  religious 
center  in  the  north.  How  long  he  remained  there  we  do  not 
know;  7:  10-17  narrates  how  the  chief  priest  sought  to  silence 
him,  but  in  vain;  he  repeated  his  message  and,  when  his  task 
was  finished,  returned  to  his  home,  where  he  may  have  writ- 
ten down  his  message  or,  at  least,  directed  the  writing. 

One  need  but  read  the  Books  of  Amos  and  Hosea  to  un- 
derstand the  desperate  conditions  confronting  the  prophet 
The  prosperity,  luxury,  and  extravagance  of  the  rich  met  the 
simple  herdsman  on  every  hand.  The  sanctuaries  shared  in 
the  general  prosperity;  offerings  and  tithes  were  brought  reg- 
ularly and  in  abundance;  people  crowded  the  holy  places,  and 
celebrated  the  sacred  feasts  with  all  possible  pomp.  A  nation 
so  prosperous  and  so  zealous  in  the  performance  of  its  re- 
ligious obligations  might  well  be  called  blessed.  But  the 
prophet  was  not  deceived  by  the  superficial  prosperity;  he  saw 
the  dark  side  of  the  nation's  life  as  well.  Violence  and  rob- 
bery, oppression  of  the  poor,  dishonest  trading,  graft  and 
bribery,  were  widespread;  the  corruption  of  the  courts  of 
justice  was  notorious;  immoralities  were  practiced  without 
shame;  all  humane  feelings,  even  in  women,  seemed  to  be 
smothered.  With  this  disregard  of  all  human  and  divine  law 
there  went,  strangely  enough,  a  feeling  of  absolute  security 
and  self-righteousness.  The  great  mass  of  people  believed 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY  PROPHETS  129 

that,  In  view  of  their  painstaking  observance  of  the  external 
ceremonial,  they  had  a  claim  upon  the  Divine  favor  and  that 
Jehovah  was  bound  to  be  with  them  and  protect  them  from 
all  harm. 

The  message  of  Amos  was  to  recall  Israel  from  its  apos- 
tasy to  a  life  of  righteousness  and  obedience  to  Jehovah. 
The  Book  of  Amos  falls  naturally  into  three  divisions: 

I.  Chapters   I  and  2.     The  approaching  judgment  upon  six 
non-Israelitish     nations,     upon     Judah,     and     upon     Israel. 

II.  Chapters  3 — 6.     A  series  of  five  discourses  of  warning 
and   exhortation:    (i)    Condemnation  of  the   ruling   classes 
(3:1 — 4:3);    (2)   Israel's  failure  to  understand  the  Divine 
judgments    (4:4-13);    (3)    Address  containing  lamentations, 
exhortations,   reproofs,  and  threats   of  ruin    (5 : 1-17)  ;    (4) 
Darkness   and   despair  of  the   day   of  Jehovah    ($'.  18-27)  I 
(.=5)  Woe  upon  the  luxurious,  the  self-confident,  and  the  proud 
(6:1-14).     III.   Chapters  7 — 9.     Visions  picturing  the  exe- 
cution of  the  judgment,  with  interludes:    (i)    Five  visions, 
with  explanatory  remarks  (7:1-9;  8: 1-14;  9:  i-io)  ;  (2)  The 
experiences  of  Amos  at  Bethel  (7:10-17);  (3)  Promises  of 
a  brighter  future  (9:11-15). 

b.  Teaching  and  Significance  of  the  Message  of  Amos.  In 
the  course  of  his  addresses  Amos  emphasizes  the  following 
aspects  of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah:  (i)  Jehovah 
is  the  only  true  God;  (2)  He  is  a  person;  (3)  He  is  all- 
powerful;  (4)  He  is  everywhere  present;  (5)  He  knows  all 
things;  (6)  He  is  merciful;  (7)  above  all  else  he  insists  that 
Jehovah  is  a  righteous  God,  whose  favor  can  be  secured  only 
by  a  life  of  righteousness.  These  truths  Amos  does  not  dis- 
cuss in  an  abstract  manner,  but  in  their  practical  bearing  upon 
the  past,  present,  and  future  history  of  Israel;  but  while  he 
deals  primarily  with  the  historical  Israel  of  his  age,  he  gives 
expression  to  several  religious  and  moral  truths  that  are  of 
permanent  significance.  Of  these  the  more  important  are: 
(i)  Justice  between  man  and  man  is  one  of  the  divine  foun- 
dations of  society;  (2)  Privilege  implies  responsibility;  (3) 
9 


130 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


Failure  to  recognize  responsibility  will  surely  bring  punish- 
ment; (4)  Nations  and,  by  analogy,  individuals  are  bound  to 
live  up  to  the  measure  of  light  and  knowledge  granted  to 
them;  (5)  The  most  elaborate  worship  is  but  an  insult  to 
God  when  offered  by  those  who  have  no  mind  to  conform 
to  His  demands. 

c.  The  Prophet  Hosea  and  His  Message.  A  few  years 
after  the  withdrawal  of  Amos  from  Israel  a  new  prophet 
arose  to  continue  his  work,  namely,  Hosea.  Meanwhile  the 
religious,  moral,  and  social  evils  had  become  more  aggra- 
vated; and  during  the  latter  part  of  his  ministry  the  political 
situation  became  worse  and  worse.  After  the  death  of  Jero- 
boam II,  about  741,  a  period  of  anarchy  and  lawlessness  en- 
sued, which  culminated  in  the  fall  of  the  northern  kingdom 
in  722/721.  Hosea  had  one  important  advantage  over  his 
predecessor.  Amos  was  a  native  of  Judah,  sent  to  the  north- 
ern kingdom  on  a  temporary  mission ;  Hosea  was  a  citizen  of 
the  north,  bound  by  a  sympathetic  patriotism  to  the  kingdom 
whose  destruction  he  was  commissioned  to  predict. 

The  Book  of  Hosea  contains  the  substance  of  the  prophet's 
earnest  and  persistent  appeals  by  which  he  sought  to  bring 
the  faithless  nation  back  to  its  divine  Master.  It  falls  nat- 
urally into  two  well-marked  divisions:  chapters  i — 3  and 
4 — 14-  I-  Chapters  I — 3.  The  prophet's  marriage,  and  the 
application  of  the  story:  Jehovah's  love  and  Israel's  faithless- 
ness. II.  Chapters  4 — 14.  Hosea's  prophetic  discourses; 
(i)  Awful  condition  of  the  people,  due  to  the  lack  of  knowl- 
edge of  Jehovah,  for  which  lack  the  priests  are  responsible 
(4:1-19);  (2)  The  utter  corruption  of  Israel— the  inevitable 
doom  (5:1—8:14);  (3)  The  present  rejoicing  contrasted 
with  the  despair  of  the  Exile  (9: 1-9)  ;  (4)  A  series  of  retro- 
spects, showing  the  utter  corruption  of  Israel  (9:10— 
H'li);  (5)  A  new  series  of  indictments  (11:12 — 12:14); 
(6)  Israel's  glory  turned  to  shame  (13:1-16);  (7)  Israel's 
repentance— God's  pardon  (14: 1-8)  ;  followed  by  an  exhorta- 
tion to  study  the  Book  of  Hosea  (9). 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY   PROPHETS          13? 

d.  The  Teaching  of  Hosea.    The  message  of  Hosea  was 
very  comprehensive,   touching  upon  the   social   and   political 
as  well  as  upon  the  moral  and  religious  situation,  and  yet  the 
principles  underlying  his  discourses  are  few  and  easily  dis- 
cerned. Fundamental  is  his  conception  of  the  nature  and  char- 
acter of  Jehovah,  in  which  he  agrees  essentially  with  Amos; 
only  he  lays  much  greater  stress  than  the  latter  upon  the 
love  of  Jehovah ;  indeed,  the  conviction  that  God  is  love  colors 
all  his  teaching.     Israel,  the  wife  of  Jehovah,   has   proved 
faithless,  but  through  His  love  He  will  win  her  back  to  a  more 
intimate  fellowship  than  ever  before.     The  supreme  goal  of 
Hosea's  aspirations  for  Israel  is  not  external  prosperity,  but 
the   re-establishment  of  a   fellowship   of  life   and   love   with 
Jehovah ;  the  necessary  condition  of  the  enjoyment  of  this  fel- 
lowship is  sincere,  heart-felt  repentance,  which  to  Hosea  im- 
plied all  that  is  essential  in  the  New  Testament  conception  of 
repentance :   recognition  that  sin  is  committed  against  God, 
a  deep  sorrow  for  wrongdoing,  and  an  earnest  determination 
to  live  henceforth  in  a  manner  acceptable  to  God.     Hosea  is 
the  first  prophet  to  mention  the  Messianic  King,  in  whom 
center  the  hopes  and  anticipations  of  subsequent  generations 
(i:n;  3:5). 

e.  The   Prophet   Isaiah   and   His   Message.     During   the 
later  years  of  Hosea's  activity  in  Israel,  Isaiah,  next  to  Moses 
the  greatest  prophet  of  the  Hebrews,  began  his  ministry  in 
Judah.     He  began  to  prophesy  about  740  and  continued  until 
about  700.     Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be  stated  that 
political,  social,  moral,  and  religious  conditions  in  Judah  were 
practically  the  same  as  in  Israel  during  the  same  period,  and 
the   age   demanded   a   man   of  faith,   courage,   and   spiritual 
insight.    The  personality  of  Isaiah  was  such  as  to  fit  him  for 
the   mighty  tasks   before   him.     He   was   not   a   "pale-faced 
ascetic  or  a  shrinking  sentimentalist :"  he  was  a  full-blooded 
man,  a  man  of  high  mettle,  who  found  it  quite  consistent  with 
lowliness   to  pour   contempt  upon   a   weak,  vacillating  king, 
to  fling  burning  scorn  against  mocking  skeptics,  to  denounce 


,32  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

falsehood  and  deceit  with  words  that  scorched  and  blistered. 
His  one  outstanding  characteristic  was  strength— strength  of 
character,  strength  born  of  intense  convictions  and  of  strong 
and  lofty  motives.    Isaiah  is  in  truth  a  king  among  prophets. 
Isaiah  was  not,  like  Amos,  Hosea,  and  his  younger  contem- 
,!   porary  Micah,  a  man  of  the  country;  his  home  was  in  Je- 
rusalem, and  he  appears  to  have  been  of  high  social  rank, 
I  [_perhaps  a  member  of  the  royal  family. 

Limitation  of  space  will  not  permit  to  do  more  than  give 
a  very  general  outline  of  Isaiah's  message.  The  book  bearing 
his  name  may  be  divided  into  seven  portions  of  unequal 
length:  I.  Chapters  I — 12,  Prophecies  centering  around 
Judah  and  Israel,  coming  from  different  periods  of  Isaiah's 
activity  and  dealing  with  a  variety  of  subjects.  II.  Chapters 
13 — 23,  Prophecies  concerning  various  foreign  nations  that 
came  into  hostile  contact  with  Israel  and  Judah.  III.  Chap- 
ters 24 — 27,  Portrayal,  in  vivid  colors,  of  a  great  world  judg- 
ment, and  the  escape  of  God's  faithful  people  from  its  terrors. 

IV.  Chapters  28 — 33,  Group  of  discourses  having  for  their 
subject  chiefly  the  relations  of  Judah  with  Egypt  and  Assyria. 

V.  Chapters  34,  35,  Contrast  between  the  destiny  of  Edom  and 
that  of  Israel.     VI.  Chapters  36 — 39,  An  historical   section, 
dealing  chiefly  with  the  activity  of  Isaiah  during  the  reign 
of    Hezekiah.     VII.    Chapters    40 — 66,    The    restoration    of 
Judah  from  exile. 

rf.  The  Work  and  Teaching  of  Isaiah.  The  key  to 
Isaiah's  activity  may  be  found  in  his  inaugural  vision,  an 
account  of  which  is  contained  in  the  sixth  chapter.  During 
that  spiritual  crisis  the  following  truths  were  impressed  upon 
the  prophet:  (i)  The  holiness  of  Jehovah;  (2)  the  majesty 
of  Jehovah;  (3)  the  corruption  and  stubbornness  of  His  con- 
temporaries; (4)  the  ethical  basis  of  the  relation  of  Jehovah 
to  Israel  and  the  world;  (5)  the  certainty  of  an  awful  judg- 
ment; (6)  the  preservation  of  a  remnant;  (7)  this  remnant 
is  to  be  the  seed  of  a  new  Israel.  With  these  truths  burning 
te  his  soul,  it  is  not  strange  that  his  standard  of  living  for 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY   PROPHETS         133 

himself  and  his  fellows  was  raised ;  nor  is  it  surprising  that 
he  strove  for  forty  years,  in  the  face  of  untold  obstacles,  to 
lift  the  nation  to  the  pure  heights  of  his  new  ideals.  With 
this  sublime  vision  of  God  he  knew  no  sphere  of  life  where 
the  presence  of  Jehovah  might  not  be  felt  or  the  battle  of 
righteousness  might  not  be  fought;  and  it  was  his  sole  ambi- 
tion to  fight  this  battle  until  the  entire  national  life  should  be 
regenerated,  until  worship  should  be  so  pure,  commerce  so 
clean,  and  politics  so  honest  and  unselfish,  that  all  might  be 
offered  as  a  holy  and  acceptable  service  to  Jehovah. 

The  broad  outlook  of  Isaiah  resulted  in  a  variety  of  inter- 
ests and  activities.  He  was  a  patient  and  painstaking  teacher 
of  religious  truth,  a  Lold  and  fearless  preacher  of  right  living, 
a  sane  and  courageous  social  reformer,  a  keen  and  far-seeing 
statesman,  and  a  divinely  enlightened  seer  penetrating  the  veil 
hiding  the  future  and  anticipating  the  glorious  era  when  the 
kingdom  of  God  would  be  established  upon  earth.  As  a 
religious  teacher  Isaiah  sought  first  of  all  to  impress  upon 
the  hearts  and  minds  of  his  contemporaries  a  more  adequate 
conception  of  the  nature  and  character  of  Jehovah,  for  he 
was  convinced  that  the  cause  of  Israel's  apostasy  was  the  lack 
of  a  trua  knowledge  of  Jehovah.  While  he  agrees  with  the 
religious  conceptions  of  his  predecessors,  he  gives  special 
emphasis  to  the  two  phases  of  the  divine  character  that  were 
burned  into  his  innermost  soul  during  his  inaugural  vision, 
namely,  the  Divine  holiness  and  majesty.  The  lofty  concep- 
tion of  the  character  of  Jehovah  brought  with  it  lofty  concep- 
tions of  the  Divine  ideals  of  righteousness ;  and  as  a  preacher 
of  right  living  and  a  social  reformer  he  endeavored  to  assist 
his  contemporaries  toward  realizing  these  ideals ;  the  nation 
being  morally  and  socially  corrupt,  he  labored  for  a  trans- 
formation of  the  conditions  which  meant  the  certain  doom 
of  his  people.  Moreover,  Isaiah  was  a  statesman.  A  funda- 
mental factor  in  his  attitude  as  a  statesman  was  his  concep- 
tion of  the  mission  of  the  nation.  He  was  convinced  that 
ba*k  of  the  nation  was  God;  it  was  he  who  formed  it,  nour- 


'34 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


ished  it,  and  brought  it  up,  who  cared  for  it,  who  had  for  it 
a  lofty  purpose  and  mission,  and  did  his  utmost  to  prepare 
the  nation  for  the  carrying  out  of  its  divinely  appointed  task. 
Since  the  nation  seemed  unwilling  to  carry  out  the  divine 
purpose,  Jehovah  must  vindicate  His  holiness  and  majesty  by 
executing  judgment  upon  the  guilty.  Again  and  again  Isaiah 
announces  the  impending  doom  of  the  nation;  but  he,  like 
the  other  prophets,  looked  for  the  preservation  of  a  righteous 
rerrmant  which  might  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  a  new  kingdom 
of  God.  Over  this  kingdom  the  Messianic  King,  described  in 
glowing  colors  in  9:  1-7  and  u:  1-5,  will  reign  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Jehovah. 

g.  The  Prophet  Micah  and  His  Message.  A  few  years 
after  Isaiah  entered  upon  his  prophetic  career  there  appeared 
another  prophet  in  Judah,  by  the  name  of  Micah.  Both 
cherished  lofty  conceptions  of  the  character  of  Jehovah  and 
of  the  obligations  resting  upon  His  people,  and  both  had 
firmly  established  convictions  concerning  the  nature  and  ulti- 
mate triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  A  comparison  of  the 
utterances  of  the  two  men  also  brings  out  resemblances  in 
style,  thought,  topic,  and  even  phrases ;  but  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  two  in  origin,  training,  and  sphere  of  activity  are 
equally  marked.  The  one  was  a  city  prophet,  of  high  social 
standing,  and  the  counselor  of  kings;  the  other,  a  simple 
contryman,  born  of  obscure  parentage  and  in  close  touch  and 
sympathy  with  the  peasant  class. 

The  Book  of  Micah  falls  naturally  into  three  parts,  each 
containing  a  description  of  the  present  corruption,  an  an- 
nouncement of  imminent  judgment,  and  one  or  more  pictures 
of  a  bright  and  glorious  future.  The  three  divisions,  each 
one  beginning  with  "Hear  ye,"  do  not  represent  three  con- 
nected discourses,  but  collections  of  the  essential  contents  of 
the  oral  utterances  of  the  prophet  during  his  entire  ministry: 
I.  Chapters  i,  2.  Judgment  upon  Samaria  and  Judah  on  ac- 
count of  the  moral  and  social  corruption  of  both ;  the  salva- 


THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY   PROPHETS          135 

tion  of  a  remnant.  II.  Chapters  3 — 5.  Contrast  between  the 
present  degradation  and  the  future  exaltation;  the  glories  of 
the  Messianic  age,  and  the  advent  of  the  Messianic  King. 
III.  Chapters  6,  7.  Jehovah  and  Israel  in  controversy;  the 
ultimate  settlement. 

That  the  ministry  of  Micah  was  not  without  results  is  seen] 
from  Jeremiah  26:  18,  19,  where  it  is  stated  that  Micah  was 
at  least  partly  responsible  for  the  reformation  under  Heze- 
kiah.  He  adds  nothing  essentially  new  to  the  teaching  of  his 
predecessors,  but  in  a  simple  and  forceful  manner  seeks  to 
impress  upon  his  contemporaries  the  fundamental  truths  of 
the  religion  of  Jehovah.  In  the  book  bearing  his  name  is 
found  the  best  definition  of  prophetic  religion :  "What  doth 
Jehovah  require  of  thee  but  to  do  justly,  and  to  love  kind- 
ness, and  to  walk  humbly  with  thy  God?" 

Never  again  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  people,  and  one 
might  almost  say,  never  again  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race,  arose  within  one  brief  lifetime  (755-735  B.  C.)  four 
men  who  left  a  greater  and  more  permanent  impression  upon 
the  religious  development  of  the  human  race  than  did  the 
four  divinely  inspired  leaders  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and 
Micah.  They,  more  than  any  other  set  of  men  during  the 
Old  Testament  period,  were  responsible  for  the  preservation 
and  growth  of  the  religion  out  of  which  sprang,  at  a  later 
time.  Christianity. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  nature  and  function  of  Hebrew  prophecy. 
Moses  as  a  prophet. 
Early  prophetic  activity. 

History  of  the  prophets  from  the  eighth  century  on. 
The  task  of  the  eighth-century  prophets. 
The  Prophet  Amos  and  his  message. 
Hosea  and  his  message. 
Isaiah  and  his  message. 
*    Micah  and  his  message. 


136  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Bibliography : 

Batten,  "The  Hebrew  Prophets." 
Kirkpatrick,  "The  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets." 
Eiselen,  "Prophecy  and  the  Prophets." 

Commentaries:    "Isaiah,"    Skinner;    "Amos,   Hosea,    Micab," 
Eiselen,  in  "Commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  origin  and  early  development  of  prophecy. 

2.  The  message  of  Amos. 

3.  The  message  of  Isaiah. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  Describe  the  work  of  the  Hebrew  prophet. 

2.  Give  names  and  tell  of  the  work  of  the  early  prophets, 

3.  Describe  the  task  of  the  eighth-century  prophets. 

4.  Tell  of  Amos  and  his  message. 

5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Hosea? 

6.  Discuss  the  personality,  work,  and  teaching  of  Isaiah. 

7.  Give  outline  of  the  Book  of  Micah. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  PROPHETS  SUBSEQUENT  TO  THE  EIGHTH 
CENTURY  B.  C. 

1.    The  Seventh-Century  Prophets. 

o.  The  Message  of  Jeremiah.  During  the  closing  years 
of  the  seventh  century  four  prophets  arose  in  Judah :  Jere- 
miah, Zephaniah,  Nahum,  and  Habakkuk.  Of  these  Jeremiah 
was  the  greatest  and  enjoyed  the  longest  period  of  activity. 
He  received  his  call  to  the  prophetic  office  in  626,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  prophesy  until  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  in  586. 
The  task  set  before  him  was  not  an  easy  one ;  for  his  ministry 
was  to  include  the  nations;  nor  was  it  very  inspiring,  for 
he  was  to  be  pre-eminently  a  prophet  of  doom.  From  1 :  10, 
which  contains  the  commission  of  the  prophet,  to  the  end  of 
the  book,  the  somber  note  of  judgment  predominates.  In  the 
prophecies  belonging  to  the  earlier  period  a  note  of  hope  is 
still  discernible.  Judah  may  yet  repent ;  if  so,  the  severest 
blow  may  be  averted.  But  when  the  years  passed  without 
any  improvement  in  the  people,  and  especially  after  the  ac- 
cession of  Jehoiakim,  Jeremiah  came  to  abandon  the  expec- 
tation of  any  kind  of  general  response  on  the  part  of  the  ob- 
durate nation.  He  became  convinced  that  Jehovah's  patience 
was  exhausted  and  the  time  of  mercy  was  past.  Justice  must 
have  her  way,  and  the  result  will  be  terrible  judgments  upon 
the  people.  From  the  vices  of  the  present  and  the  judgments 
he  expects  to  fall  in  the  near  future,  Jeremiah  frequently 
turns  to  the  more  remote  future,  for  beyond  the  night  of 
calamity  and  distress  he  sees  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day. 
The  eternal  purpose  of  the  Divine  grace  must  yet  be  realized. 
The  nation  Israel  may  perish,  but  the  kingdom  of  God  must 

137 


I38  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

endure.  Promises  of  restoration  are  scattered  throughout  the 
entire  book,  but  they  are  especially  numerous  in  chapters  30 
to  33,  which  have  been  called  a  "Book  of  Consolation."  The 
most  important  features  of  the  future  glory  emphasized  by 
Jeremiah  are:  (i)  The  salvation  of  a  righteous  remnant  from 
the  judgment  (4:27;  5:10,  18;  29:11;  30:11;  46:28); 
(2)  The  restoration  of  this  remnant  from  exile  (3:  12,  21,  22; 
16:14,  15;  chapters  30,  31);  (3)  The  rise  of  a  new  Jeru- 
salem, to  serve  as  a  dwelling-place  of  Jehovah  and  a  re- 
ligious center  for  the  restored  exiles  (33 :  16)  ;  (4)  The  ad- 
vent of  the  Messianic  King,  to  reign  over  the  redeemed  rem- 
nant (23:4-6;  30:9,  21)  ;  (5)  The  establishment  of  a  cove- 
nant of  pardon  and  grace  between  the  redeemed  remnant  and 
Jehovah  (31:33,  34;  32:40;  33:8)  ;  (6)  The  presence  of  Je- 
hovah in  the  midst  of  the  redeemed  people ;  as  a  result  all 
external  symbols  of  Jehovah's  presence  may  be  removed 
(3^6);  (7)  The  nations  of  the  earth  will  turn  to  Jehovah 
(3:17;  4:2;  16:  19;  33  =  9). 

The  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  may  be  arranged  as  follows: 

I.  The  call  of  Jeremiah  and  the  first  visions  of  doom   (i). 

II.  Judgment  upon  Judah  for  its  rebellion  against  Jehovah 
(2 — 6).     III.  Condemnation  of  the  hypocrisy  of  Judah   (7 — 
10).  IV.   Disregard  of  Jehovah's  will  the  cause  of  Judah's 
overthrow    (n,   12).     V.   The  decree  of  the  destruction  of 
Judah  is  irrevocable    (13 — 20).     VI.     Condemnation  of  the 
faithless   rulers    (21 — 25).     VII.   Conflict   of  Jeremiah   with 
false  prophets    (26 — 29).     VIII.    Prophecies  of  the  restora- 
tion (30 — 33).    IX.  The  doom  of  Jerusalem  due  to  the  peo- 
ple's faithlessness  (34 — 36).     X.  The  life  and  times  of  Jere- 
miah— chiefly    historical    (37 — 45).      XI.    Prophecies    against 
foreign  nations  (46 — 51).    XII.  An  historical  appendix  (52). 

Jeremiah  is  in  perfect  accord  with  his  predecessors  in  all 
essential  points  of  teaching.  Special  attention  may  be  called 
here  only  to  two  elements  in  his  teaching,  which  constitute 
his  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  body  of  divine  truth: 
(i)  The  spirituality  of  religion.  In  former  days  the  national 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  ,35 

aspect  of  religion  was  emphasized,  and  this  naturally  gave  a 
large  place  to  forms  and  institutions  which  might  be  national 
in  their  use  and  benefits.  Jeremiah  saw  that  the  national  life 
of  Judah  was  rapidly  nearing  its  close,  and  with  it  would  dis- 
appear the  Holy  City,  the  temple,  and  other  institutions  that 
were  closely  bound  up  with  the  religious  life  of  the  past. 
Religion,  to  prepare  for  this  crisis,  must  be  denationalized; 
it  must  be  individualized  and  spiritualized.  This  need  Jere- 
miah proceeded  to  supply;  and  again  and  again  he  insists 
that  religion  is  an  immediate,  personal  relationship  between 
Jehovah  and  the  individual  soul,  and  heart  obedience  and  de- 
votion of  the  individual  to  his  God  (31 :  33,  34 ;  32 :  40 ;  33 :  b>. 
(2)  Personal  responsibility.  The  individualization  of  religion 
implies  the  doctrine  of  personal  responsibility.  With  the  sense 
of  individuality  lost,  persons  might  think  that  they  were  pun- 
ished for  the  sins  of  others,  sins  committed  by  some  of  their 
contemporaries  or  ancestors  (31:29).  Conscious  personal 
fellowship  with  God  involves  a  deeper  sense  of  individual  re- 
sponsibility. Men  will  begin  to  realize  that  every  one  is  re- 
sponsible for  his  own  conduct  (31:30). 

b.  The  Message  of  Zephaniah.  The  earliest  of  Jeremiah's 
contemporaries  was  Zephaniah.  The  occasion  of  his  prophe- 
sying seems  to  have  been  the  threatening  advance  of  the  Scy- 
thians, a  horde  of  barbarians,  who  overran  Western  Asia  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  the  seventh  century  B.  C.  The  prophet 
considered  the  Scythians  the  executioners  of  a  Divine  judg- 
ment upon  his  sinful  countrymen  and  the  surrounding  na- 
tions. Repentance  offers  the  only  way  of  escape;  those  who 
do  not  repent  will  be  destroyed,  those  who  return  to  Jehovah 
will  be  exalted  and  glorified.  The  greater  part  of  the  book 
(1:2 — 3:7)  is  given  up  to  threats  and  denunciations,  with 
few  indications  of  hope ;  the  closing  section,  3 :  8-20,  contains 
a  promise  of  salvation  and  exaltation  to  those  who  repent. 

Zephaniah  adds  little  that  is  new  to  the  teaching  of  his 
predecessors,  but  he  attempts  with  much  moral  and  spiritual 
fervor  to  impress  upon  his  contemporaries  the  fundamental 


I4o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

truths  of  the  religion  of  Jehovah.  Especially  notable  is  his 
emphasis  upon  the  "Day  of  Jehovah,"  the  great  day  of  battle 
when  Jehovah  was  expected  to  manifest  himself  in  the  de- 
struction of  all  his  foes  and  the  exaltation  of  the  faithful. 
The  vision  of  Zephaniah  is  world-wide;  the  judgment  will 
fall  upon  all  nations,  and  from  all  parts  of  the  world  con- 
verts will  be  won  to  Jehovah;  and  these  may  worship  Him, 
"every  one  from  his  place." 

c.  The  Message  of  Nahum.  Nahum  differs  from  his  pred- 
ecessors in  his  silence  concerning  the  sin  and  guilt  of  Judah. 
The  other  prophets  point  to  present  or  impending  distress  or 
affliction  as  punishment  for  sin,  and  they  insist  that  salvation 
can  come  only  if  the  people  repent  and  turn  to  Jehovah.  The 
theme  of  Nahum  is  the  fall  and  destruction  of  Nineveh,  the 
capital  of  Assyria,  the  long-time  oppressor  of  the  Hebrews. 
Judah  had  suffered  much  from  the  proud  Assyrian,  and  it  is 
not  difficult  to  understand  how,  with  the  doom  of  the  cruel 
oppressor  imminent  a  prophet-patriot  might  burst  into  shouts 
of  exultation  and  triumph  over  the  distress  of  th.e  cruel  foe, 
for  the  downfall  of  the  enemy  will  make  possible  the  exalta- 
tion of  the  people  of  Jehovah.  Chapter  I  contains  the  decree 
of  Nineveh's  doom  because  the  city  has  devised  evil  against 
Jehovah.  Chapters  2  and  3  describe,  in  forceful  and  pictur- 
esque language,  the  siege,  capture,  and  destruction  of  the  city. 

The  utterances  of  Nahum  contain  little  direct  religious 
teaching;  and  what  there  is  of  it  is  confined  very  largely  to 
the  opening  verses  of  Chapter  I,  where  the  twofold  mani- 
festation of  the  Divine  holiness — the  Divine  vengeance  and 
the  Divine  mercy — is  emphasized  (1:2,  3).  The  manifesta- 
tion of  the  one  results  in  the  destruction  of  the  wicked  (1:2), 
the  other  in  the  salvation  of  the  oppressed  (1:15;  2:2). 
Faith  in  Jehovah  will  secure  the  Divine  favor  and  protection. 
Indirectly  the  message  of  Nahum,  by  its  emphasis  of  the  sway 
of  Jehovah  over  the  whole  universe  and  the  duty  of  all  to 
own  this  sway,  is  of  profound  eternal  signficance.  "Assyria 
in  Nahum's  hands  becomes  an  object  lesson  to  the  empires 
»jf  the  modern  world,  teaching,  as  an  eternal  principle  of  the 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  141 

divine  government  of  the  world,  the  absolute  necessity,  for 
a  nation's  continued  vitality,  of  that  righteousness,  personal, 
civic,  and  national,  which  alone  exalteth  a  nation." 

d.  The  Message  of  Habakkuk.  In  the  Book  of  Habakkuk 
a  new  type  of  prophecy  appears.  The  prophets  were  primarily 
preachers  and  teachers  of  religion  and  ethics.  They  addressed 
themselves  to  their  fellow  countrymen  in  an  attempt  to  win 
them  back  to  Jehovah  and  a  righteous  life.  Not  so  Habakkuk. 
He  addresses  himself  to  Jehovah,  questioning  the  justice  and 
even  the  reality  of  the  Divine  providence.  The  prophet  is 
perplexed,  for  he  can  not  harmonize  the  seeming  indifference 
of  Jehovah  in  the  presence  of  wide-spread  corruption  with 
his  conception  of  the  Divine  character  (1:2-4).  In  reply  Je- 
hovah declares  that  judgment  is  about  to  be  executed  by  the 
Chaldeans  (1:5-11).  The  answer  raises  another  problem: 
How  can  a  holy  God  use  the  godless  Chaldeans  as  instru- 
ments ?  To  which  Jehovah  replies :  The  Chaldeans,  though 
temporarily  exalted,  will  meet  certain  doom;  the  righteout, 
though  temporarily  afflicted,  will  live  forever  (1:12 — 2:5). 
There  follows  a  taunt-song  over  the  downfall  of  the  Baby- 
lonians (2:6-20),  and  the  "prayer"  of  Habakkuk  (chapter  3). 

The  message  of  Habakkuk  suggests  several  valuable  les- 
sons:  (i)  The  proper  attitude  amid  perplexing  problems; 
(2)  the  universal  supremacy  of  Jehovah;  (3)  faith,  or  faith- 
fulness, is  a  guarantee  of  permanency  and  life. 

2.   The  Prophets  of  the  Exile. 

a.  The  Message  of  Obadiah.  The  historical  references 
and  allusions  in  Obadiah  11 — 14  suggest  that  the  message 
originated  soon  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  in  586  B.  C.  The 
message  is  called  forth  by  the  hostility  of  the  Edomites  to- 
ward the  Jews  on  that  occasion.  The  prophet  announces  the 
destruction  of  Edom  (i — 9),  because  of  its  hostility  and 
cruelty  toward  Judah  (10 — 16),  and  the  subsequent  exalta- 
tion of  the  Jews  (17 — 21).  Among  the  fundamental  beliefs 
underlying  the  message  are  the  following:  (i)  Jehovah  has 
a  special  interest  in  Israel.  (2)  He  will  establish  a  n«;W 


J42  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

kingdom  of  God,  with  Judah  and  Jerusalem  as  the  center. 
(3)  Holiness  will  be  the  chief  characteristic  of  this  kingdom. 

b.  The  Message  of  Ezekiel.  In  597  King  Jehoiachin  and 
about  ten  thousand  of  the  better  class  of  Jews  were  carried 
into  captivity  to  Babylonia.  Among  these  exiles  was  Ezekiel. 
In  the  fifth  year  of  his  exile  he  entered  upon  his  prophetic 
work.  From  593  to  586  Ezekiel  devoted  himself  almost  ex- 
clusively to  combating  the  false  hopes  of  a  speedy  restoration 
entertained  by  many,  both  in  Jerusalem  and  in  exile.  During 
this  period  denunciations  and  threats  predominate.  When 
his  predictions  of  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  were  fulfilled,  a  great 
change  came  over  the  popular  attitude ;  henceforth  Ezekiel 
enjoyed  the  veneration  of  all  the  Jews  in  Babylon.  His  mes- 
sage also  assumed  a  different  aspect,  for  he  now  dwelt  more 
and  more  upon  the  coming  restoration.  His  glowing  words 
kept  alive  the  hope  of  the  people,  based  upon  earlier  prophe- 
cies, and  at  the  same  time  tended  to  bring  the  whole  people 
into  a  more  vital  relation  with  their  God. 

The  Book  of  Ezekiel  consists  of  three  main  divisions : 
I.  Chapters  I — 24,  The  sin  and  punishment  of  Judah :  i.  The 
prophet's  call  and  initiation  (1:1 — 3:21);  2.  Utterances  and 
symbolical  actions  announcing  the  impending  fall  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem  (3:22 — 7:27);  3.  Visions  of  the  corruption 
and  doom  of  Jerusalem;  Jehovah's  departure  from  the  Holy 
City  (8 — n);  4.  Discourses  and  symbolical  acts  portraying 
the  people's  sin  and  doom  (12 — 19)  ;  5.  The  doom  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem  (20 — 24).  II.  Chapters  25 — 32,  Judgments 
upon  foreign  nations.  These  judgments  will  fall  (i)  to  pre- 
vent the  nations  from  troubling  the  restored  Israel,  (2)  to 
remove  the  evil  influences  which  had  sprung  from  the  people's 
contact  with  their  heathen  neighbors  in  the  past.  III.  Chap- 
ters 33 — 48,  Prophecies  of  the  restoration:  I.  The  manner 
in  which  Jehovah  will  restore  His  people  to  the  promised 
land  (33 — 39).  2.  The  constitution  upon  which  the  life  of 
the  restored  community  is  to  be  organized  (40 — 48). 

The  preservation  of  Israel's  religion  in  exile  was  almost 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  143 

entirely  due  to  the  sen-ice  rendered  by  Ezekiel.  The  more 
important  aspects  of  his  work  are:  I.  Denunciation  of  Judah's 
sins  and  announcement  of  doom  (i — 24).  2.  Repentance  the 
condition  of  salvation  (18:30-32)  ;  3.  Promises  of  restoration 
(n:i6ff;  i6:6off;  27:22-24;  2o:4off;  33—48).  Concerning 
the  future  restoration  and  exaltation  he  says:  (i)  It  will  be- 
preceded  by  judgments  upon  the  nations  (25 — 32;  38;  39); 
(2)  The  land  will  be  endowed  with  extraordinary  fertility 
(36:  8,  9,  29,  30,  34,  35)  ;  (3)  The  exiles  will  be  prepared  for 
the  return  by  a  moral  and  spiritual  regeneration  (36:  25-27)  ? 

(4)  The  regenerated  exiles  will  be  brought  back  (37:  1-14)  ; 

(5)  Over  the  restored  exiles  the  Messianic  King  will  reign 
(34:11-24;   37:22ff);    (6)    Jehovah   will   return   to  the   re- 
deemed   people,    to    abide    with    them    forever    (37:26,    27; 
43:1-12);    (7)    The  restored  people  will  be  organized  as  a 
theocracy    (40 — 48).     In  his  conception  of  Jehovah's  nature 
and  character  Ezekiel  agrees  fully  with  his  predecessors,  call- 
ing special  attention  to  the  Divine  majesty   (i,   10,  43)   and 
holiness,  and  Jehovah's  desire  that  all  nations  should  know 
Him  in  His  fullness   (20:41;  28:22,  25;  36:23;  38:16,  23). 
He  also  emphasizes  and  expands  the  doctrine  of  the  freedom 
and  responsibility  of  the  individual  soul  before  God,  which 
was   first   taught  by  Jeremiah    (18:20-32).      In   one   respect 
Ezekiel   differs   from  his   predecessors,  namely,   in   the  high 
estimate  he  places  upon  the  externals  of  religion    (40 — 48), 
but  he  is  by  no  means  a  formalist,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
profound  and  noble  utterances  touching  the  necessity  of  a 
new  heart   (18:31;  36:26)   and  a  new  spirit   (11:19). 

c.  The  Message  of  Isaiah,  Chapters  40  to  66.  Whoever 
may  have  been  the  author  of  these  chapters,  it  is  universally 
admitted  that  they  are  written  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
Babylonian  exile,  and  that,  therefore,  they  must  be  interpreted 
from  that  standpoint.  The  all-pervading  note  is  consolation, 
for  the  author  means  to  revive  the  drooping  spirit  of  the 
exiles  and  prepare  them  for  the  restoration  which  he  con- 
siders imminent.  The  chapters  may  be  arranged  in  three 


144  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

groups :  I.  Chapters  40 — 48,  the  deliverance  and  restoration 
of  the  exiles  through  the  instrumentality  of  Cyrus.  To  give 
•emphasis  to  his  promises,  the  prophet  calls  attention  again 
=and  again  to  the  mighty  power  of  Jehovah,  which  enables  him 
to  carry  out  his  purpose  in  the  face'of  all  obstacles.  II.  Chap- 
ters 49 — 55,  the  mission  of  the  servant  of  Jehovah  and  the 
glorification  of  Zion.  The  prophet  is  concerned  in  these  chap- 
ters largely  with  the  moral  and  spiritual  transformation  of  the 
exiles  and  their  exaltation  after  the  restoration.  III.  Chapters 
56 — 66,  the  future  blessedness  of  the  true  Israel  and  the 
doom  of  the  apostates. 

In  many  respects  these  chapters  constitute  'the  most  bril- 
liant jewel  of  prophetic  literature."  In  the  first  place,  the 
prophet  never  wearies  of  emphasizing  the  fact  that  Jehovah 
alone  is  God  (40:18-20;  41:29;  43:96*;  44:8-20).  This 
one  God  is  all-powerful  and  supreme,  over  all  (40:  12,  22, 
23,  28;  41 :  2,  25 ;  43 :  12 ;  44 :  28 ;  45 :  1-3)  ;  He  is  also  a  right- 
eous and  holy  God  (41:  10,  14;  42:6;  43:  14;  45:13,  19,  23; 
46:13;  47:4;  48:17;  49=7;  Si:5,  6,  8;  54:5;  55:5;  56:i; 
60:9,  14)  ;  a  God  of  majesty  and  power,  whose  eternal  pur- 
pose is  to  make  Himself  known  to  men  (40 :  5 ;  43 :  7-25 ; 
48:9-11;  etc.).  Israel  has  been  chosen  to  aid  God  in  the 
carrying  out  of  this  purpose  of  grace  and  good-will  (40 — 
S3)  5  and  when  the  servant  of  Jehovah  has  performed  his 
task  he  will  be  highly  exalted;  the  glories  of  this  exaltation 
are  vividly  portrayed  in  chapters  56 — 66. 

3.   The  Prophets  after  the  Exile. 

a.  The  Message  of  Haggai  and  Zechanah.  Babylon  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Cyrus  in  538;  and  soon  after  he  gave  per- 
mission to  the  Jews  to  return  to  their  old  home.  In  the 
spring  of  537  a  large  company  took  advantage  of  this  permis- 
sion, and  immediately  on  their  arrival  in  Jerusalem  they  set 
up  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings  and  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple  (Ezra  3:2ff).  However,  the  first  enthusiasm  soon 
grew  cold,  and  when  in  520  the  two  prophets  Haggai  and 
Zechariah  appeared,  they  found  building  operations  at  a 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  145 

Standstill.  They  recognized  the  importance  of  the  temple  as 
a  religious  center;  hence,  from  beginning  to  end  their  mes- 
sage centers  around  the  rebuilding  of  the  house  of  God. 
Their  preaching  produced  results,  and  in  516  the  temple  was 
completed  and  dedicated. 

The  Book  of  Haggai  contains  four  separate  utterances: 
I.  Rebuke  of  religious  indifference,  exhortation  to  resume 
building  operations  (i:  i-n)  ;  II.  Message  of  encouragement 
to  the  builders  (2:1-9);  III.  The  completion  of  the  temple 
a  sure  guarantee  of  the  return  of  the  divine  favor  (2: 10-19)  ; 
IV.  Exaltation  of  Zerubbabel,  the  servant  of  Jehovah  (2: 
20-23).  Chapter  1:12-15  is  an  historical  section,  describing 
the  effects  of  the  first  discourse.  The  Book  of  Zechariah 
opens  with  a  call  to  repentance  (1:1-6).  Then  follow  eight 
night-visions  (1:7 — 6:8),  all  serving  a  common  purpose, 
"the  encouragement  of  the  Jews  to  continue  the  work  of  re- 
storing the  temple  and  rebuilding  the  city,  and  the  re-estab- 
lishing of  the  theocratic  government:"  I.  The  angelic  horse- 
men (1:7-17);  2.  The  four  horns  and  the  four  smiths 
(1:18-21);  3.  The  man  with  the  measuring  line  (2:1-13); 
4.  The  trial  of  the  high  priest  (3)  ;  5.  The  golden  candlestick 
and  the  two  olive  trees  (4)  ;  6.  The  flying  roll  (5 : 1-4)  ; 
7.  The  woman  in  the  ephah  (5:5-11)  ;  8.  The  four  chariot? 
with  horses  of  different  colors  (6:  1-8).  In  6:9-15  is  an 
account  of  a  symbolical  act,  the  crowning  of  the  high  priest 
Joshua.  In  chapters  7  and  8  the  prophet  points  out  the  es- 
sential elements  of  Jehovah  religion  and  promises  the  speedy 
exaltation  of  the  Jews.  Chapters  9—14  contain  a  series  of 
utterances,  loosely  connected,  dealing  for  the  most  part  with 
the  events  leading  up  to  the  final  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of 
God.  The  two  prophets  do  not  contribute  any  new  elements 
of  truth;  they  simply  desire  to  enforce  the  truths  taught  by 
the  earlier  prophets  and  adapt  them  to  changed  conditions. 
However,  Zechariah  differs  from  his  predecessors  in  three 
points:  (i)  in  the  emphasis  he  places  upon  visions  as  a 
means  of  divine  communication;  (2)  in  the  apocalyptic  sym- 
bolism that  enters  into  the  visions;  (3)  in  the  large  place 
10 


occupied  by  angelic  mediation  in  his  intercourse  with  Je- 
hovah. 

b.  The  Message  of  Malachi.  The  ministry  of  Malachi 
is  connected  with  the  reform  movement  under  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah.  The  fundamental  evil  of  the  day  was  religious 
indifference  and  skepticism,  due,  on  the  one  hand,  to  dis- 
appointment over  the  non-fulfillment  of  earlier  prophecies. 
The  exilic  and  pre-exilic  prophets  had  painted  the  glories 
of  the  restoration  in  the  brighest  colors,  but  the  reality  was 
far  inferior  to  the  ideal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  apparent 
inequalities  of  life  caused  many  to  ask,  Where  is  the  God 
of  justice?  (2:17.)  This  skepticism  soon  showed  itself  in 
the  life  and  conduct  of  the  people;  the  outstanding  wrongs 
being  the  faithlessness  of  the  priests  and  the  neglect  of  the 
temple  service  by  the  people,  divorces,  the  marrying  of  for- 
eign women,  the  non-payment  of  the  tithes,  and  various 
forms  of  oppression.  Like  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Malachi 
sought  with  all  his  might  to  counteract  these  evils. 

Five  divisions  may  be  recognized  in  the  Book  of  Malachi : 
I.  The  love  of  Jehovah  for  Israel  (1:2-5).  This  forms  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  appeals.  The  love  of  Jehovah  for 
Israel,  the  prophet  thinks,  should  be  the  motive  and  model 
for  Israel's  attitude  toward  Him.  II.  The  faithlessness  of 
priests  and  people,  and  their  punishment  if  they  fail  to  re- 
pent (1:6 — 2:9).  III.  Condemnation  of  mixed  marriages 
and  divorces  (2:10-16).  IV.  Condemnation  of  the  spirit  of 
indifference  and  skepticism,  which  was  the  root  of  all  the 
religious  and  moral  corruption  denounced  in  the  rest  of  the 
book  (3:17  to  4:3).  V.  Exhortation  to  obey  the  law  of 
Moses  (4:4-6). 

c.  The  Message  of  Joel  Joel  prophesied  a  little  later 
than  Malachi.  The  occasion  of  his  utterance  appears  to  have 
been  a  threefold  calamity:  locusts  (1:4),  drought  (1:16-18), 
and  conflagrations  (1:19,  20).  These  calamities  were  to 
him  indications  that  the  day  of  reckoning  was  at  hand; 
an4  he  plead*  most  earnestly  and  persistently  for  repentance 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  147 

that  his  contemporaries  may  escape  the  terrors  of  that  day. 
The  Book  of  Joel  falls  naturally  into  two  parts,  each  one 
capable  of  subdivisions.  In  the  first  (1:1 — 2:17)  judg- 
ment receives  special  emphasis;  in  the  second  (2:18 — 3:21) 
the  thought  of  restoration  and  blessing  predominates:  I.  De- 
scription of  the  plague  which  occasions  the  prophecy  (i: 
1-20 ;  II.  The  plague  the  harbinger  of  the  day  of  Jehovah 
(2 :  1-17)  ;  III.  Restoration  of  the  divine  favor  (2 :  18-32)  ; 
IV.  Destruction  of  the  nations  and  exaltation  of  the  Jews 
(3:  1-21).  The  most  significant  feature  in  Joel's  teaching  is 
his  promise  of  the  outpouring  of  the  divine  spirit  (2:28,  29), 
which  began  to  be  fulfilled  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  since 
then  has  been  and  is  being  fulfilled  with  ever-increasing  full- 
ness and  in  a  manner  far  superior  to  the  expectation  of  our 
prophet. 

d.  The  Message  of  Jonah.  The  Book  of  Jonah  differs 
from  the  other  books  called  prophetic  by  the  Jews.  All  the 
others  record  chiefly  prophetic  utterances,  though  sometimes 
embodying  brief  narratives  of  events;  the  Book  of  Jonah,  on 
the  other  hand,  records  a  prophet's  work  and  experiences, 
giving  little  space  to  his  utterances.  And  yet  it  is  classed 
among  the  prophetic  books  because,  whatever  historical  ma- 
terial it  may  embody,  its  purpose  is  primarily  not  historical, 
but  prophetic.  In  other  words,  it  was  not  written  to  give 
information  concerning  the  prophet  Jonah,  but,  as  the  prod- 
uct of  a  prophetic  mind,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching,  by 
means  of  the  narrative,  a  great  prophetic  truth. 

The  book  narrates  certain  incidents  connected  with 
Jonah's  commission  to  preach  in  Nineveh :  I.  Jonah's  com- 
mission, disobedience,  and  punishment  (1:1-16);  II.  Jonah's 
prayer  and  deliverance  (1:17 — 2:10);  III.  Jonah's  preach- 
ing in  Nineveh  and  its  effects  (3)  ;  IV.  Jonah's  complaint  and 
rebuke  by  Jehovah.  The  central  truth  taught  in  the  narra- 
tive is  the  universality  of  the  Divine  plan  of  redemption.  No- 
where else  in  the  Old  Testament  is  such  continued  stress 
laid  upon  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  embracing  in  its  infinite 


I48  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

love  the  whole  human  race;  indeed,  the  Book  of  Jonah  is 
the  most  "Christian"  of  all  Old  Testament  books. 

e.  The  Message  of  Daniel.  The  Book  of  Daniel  belongs 
to  the  apocalyptic  literature.  Like  the  prophet,  the  apoca- 
lyptic writer  seeks  to  set  forth  the  character,  will,  and  pur- 
pose of  God,  as  also  the  laws  of  His  kingdom.  But  "proph- 
ecy still  believes  that  this  world  is  God's  world,  and  that  in 
this  world  His  goodness  and  truth  will  yet  be  justified. 
Hence  the  prophet  addressed  himself  chiefly  to  the  present 
and  its  concerns,  and  when  he  addresses  himself  to  the  fu- 
ture, his  prophecy  springs  naturally  from  the  present,  and 
the  future  which  he  depicts  is  regarded  as  in  organic  con- 
nection with  it.  The  apocalyptic  writer,  on  the  other  hand, 
almost  wholly  despairs  of  the  present;  his  main  interests  are 
supramundane." 

The  Book  of  Daniel  falls  naturally  into  two  parts: 
I.  Chapters  i — 6,  The  History  of  Daniel :  I.  Daniel's  youth 
and  education  (i)  ;  2.  The  dream  of  the  image,  and  its  sig- 
nificance (2)  ;  3.  Faithfulness  of  Daniel's  companions,  and 
their  deliverance  from  the  fiery  furnace  (3)  ;  4.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's tree-dream,  and  its  fulfillment  (4)  ;  5.  The  feast  of 
Belshazzar,  and  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  (5)  ;  6.  Daniel's 
fidelity,  and  his  deliverance  from  the  lions'  den  (6)  ;  II.  Chap- 
ters 7 — 12,  The  Visions  of  Daniel :  I.  The  vision  of  the  four 
beasts,  and  its  interpretation  (7)  ;  2.  The  ram  and  the  he- 
goat  (8)  ;  3.  Daniel's  prayer,  and  the  Divine  answer  (9)  ; 
4.  The  ultimate  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God  (10  to  12). 

The  principal  idea  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God.  "It  tells  in  plainer  language 
than  had  been  used  before,  of  the  subjection  of  the  world  to 
God,  and  indicates  clearly  the  evidence  of  the  Divine  rule, 
and  assures  us  that  the  progress  of  God's  kingdom  is  abso- 
lutely irresistible,  and  that  all  things  will  be  ultimately  brought 
into  submission  to  God."  As  compared  with  other  prophetic 
books,  Daniel  marks  an  advance  in  its  teaching  (i)  con- 
cerning angels,  (2)  concerning  a  resurrection  from  the  dead. 


THE  LATER  PROPHETS  149 

4.  Jesus  and  the  Prophets.  The  voice  of  Hebrew  proph- 
ecy was  finally  silenced,  but  the  truth  proclaimed  throughout 
the  centuries  continued  to  live ;  and  when  Jesus,  the  great 
Prophet  of  Nazareth,  appeared,  He  gathered  up  from  His 
predecessors  all  that  was  permanent  and  divine,  and,  quicken- 
ing it  by  His  own  mighty  personality,  He  sent  it  down  the 
ages  until  by  its  life-giving  power  it  should  quicken  all  men 
and  make  them  friends  of  God  and  prophets. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  message  of  Jeremiah. 

The  message  of  Zephaniah. 

The  message  of  Nahum. 

The  message  of  Habakkuk. 

The  message  of  Obadiah. 

The  message  of  Ezekiel, 

The  message  of  Isaiah,   Chapters  40—66. 

The  message  of  Haggai  and  Zachariah. 

The  message  of  Malachi. 

The  message  of  Joel. 

The  message  of  Jonah. 

The  message  of  Daniel. 

Bibliography : 

Jordan,  "Prophetic  Ideas  and  Ideals." 

Commentaries:     "Jeremiah,"     Brown;     "Ezekiel,"    Davidson; 
"Daniel,"  Driver ;  "The  Minor  Prophets,"  Eiselen. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1,  The  distinctive  message  of  Jeremiah. 

2.  The  term  "servant  of  Jehovah." 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  State  the  occasion  and  contents  of  the  message  of  Jere- 

miah. 

2.  The  distinctive  contributions  of  Jeremiah  to  divine  truth. 

3.  Tell  of  the  occasion  and  character  of  the  work  of  Zepha- 

niah. 

4.  The  distinctive  message  of  Nahum. 

5.  The  new  type  of  prophetic  message  of  Habakkuk. 

6.  What  were  the  fundamental  beliefs  of  Obadiah?. 

,.    7.  State  the  occasion,  contents,  and  teaching  of  the  message 

of  Ezekiel. 
8.  Characterize  Isaiah  40 — 66. 


PART  III 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 
BY  W,  C.  BARCLAY 


\£,  • 

. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES 

To  pass  from  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New  is  like  pass- 
ing from  one  country  to  another.  One  realizes  that  he  is 
in  the  same  world,  yet  all  about  him  wears  a  changed  aspect. 
Between  the  latest  utterance  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
earliest  of  the  New  a  period  of  at  least  two  centuries  inter- 
vened. These  were  not  idle  years.  During  every  decade 
significant  history  was  being  made.  Before  taking  up  our 
study  of  the  New  Testament  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
take  note  of  these  changes  as  they  affected  the  Jewish  people, 
and  also  to  glance  in  its  broad  outlines  at  the  national,  social, 
and  religious  situation,  of  which  Jesus  was  the  most  signifi- 
cant factor  and  out  of  which  our  New  Testament  came  as 
a  priceless  gift  to  succeeding  ages. 

I.    Government  Preceding  the  Christian  Era. 

i.  The  Maccabean  Period  (168  B.  C.  to  63  B.  C).  The 
period  receives  its  name  from  Judas  Maccabeus,  the  most 
illustrious  of  a  remarkable  family  of  Jewish  patriots  which 
furnished  a  series  of  leaders  in  a  prolonged  struggle  for  re- 
ligious and  political  freedom. 

The  Land  of  Israel  became  a  part  of  the  empire  of  Alex- 
ander in  332  B.  C.  For  a  hundred  years  after  his  death 
it  was  a  bone  of  contention  between  Egypt  and  Syria  until 
Antiochus  III,  of  Syria,  more  successful  than  his  predeces- 
sors, after  protracted  war  incorporated  it  in  the  Syrian  King- 
dofn  of  the  Seleucidse.  A  long-continued  attempt  to  Hel- 
lenixe  the  people  culminated  in  the  effort  of  Antiochus 

153 


I54  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Epiphanes  (175-164  B.  C.)  to  absolutely  destroy  Judaism. 
The  law  was  abolished,  Sabbath  worship  and  the  rite  of 
circumcision  were  prohibited,  the  temple  was  partially  de- 
stroyed, pagan  ceremonies  were  performed  in  it,  and  on  the 
sacred  altar  of  burnt  offering  a  heathen  altar  to  Jupiter  was 
erected.  Under  merciless  persecution  many  of  the  inhabi- 
tants fled,  but  finally  Judas  Maccabeus  became  the  leader 
of  a  loyal  Jewish  band  which  defended  Israel's  sacred  in- 
stitutions with  the  sword.  The  struggle  began  in  168  B.  C. ; 
by  165  B.  C.  victory  had  so  far  been  gained  that  the  cemple 
was  rededicated,  and  in  142  B.  C.  Judea  achieved  political 
independence.  There  followed  a  period  of  uncertain  political 
independence,  characterized  by  internal  intrigue,  discord,  and 
strife,  which  continued  until  63  B.  C.  Our  principal  sources 
of  information  concerning  these  troubled  times  are^I.  and  II. 
Maccabees  (apocryphal  books  of  Scripture)  and"  Josephus, 
the  Jewish  historian. 

2.  The  Roman  Period  (beginning  63  B.  C.)  may  be  said 
to  have  extended  to  70  A.  D.,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
In  63  B.  C.  the  Roman  general,  Pompey,  appealed  to  by  both 
sides  in  a  civil  war,  made  an  expedition  into  Judea,  turned 
the  role  of  peacemaker  into  that  of  conqueror,  besieged  and 
entered  the  temple,  and  made  the  whole  country  tributary 
to  Rome.  By  this  conquest  Jewish  independence  was  for- 
ever lost.  The  Jewish  territory  was  parceled  out  to  depend- 
ents of  Rome,  and  Judea  was  constituted  an  insignificant 
province  of  the  empire.  Tn  37  B.  C.,  Herod  the  Gieat  was 
appointed  king  by  the  emperor,  and  by  successful  warfare 
extended  his  borders  to  include  much  more  than  Judea.  He 
was  an  unscrupulous  and  arbitrary  ruler,  in  whose  acts  mur- 
derous cruelty  and  systematic  charity  were  strangely  com- 
bined. His  claim  to  greatness  was  based  upon  unusual  phys- 
ical vigor,  wide  learning,  and  fondness  for  Grecian  and 
Roman  art  and  architecture.  Among  the  victims  of  the  in- 
sane jealousy  and  wrath  of  his  later  years  were  his  own 
wife  and  three  of  his  sons.  By  the  terror  of  his  rule  he  was 

- 


NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES  155 

able  to  preserve  such  internal  peace  as  the  land  had  not 
known  for  many  years.  He  was  a  great  builder  and  sought 
to  make  peace  with  his  subjects  by  rebuilding  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem  on  a  scale  of  unequaled  size  and  splendor.  Herod 
died  in  4  A.  D. 

II.    Physical  and  Political  Geography  of  Palestine. 

By  our  study  of  the  Old  Testament  we  are  already  fa- 
miliar with  the  Land  of  Israel.  Because  it  was  His  country, 
Christians  speak  of  it  as  the  Holy  Land.  A  common  modern 
name  is  Palestine. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  following  were  recognized 
as  the  divisions  of  the  country:  i.  Judea;  2.  Samaria;  3.  Gali- 
lee; 4.  Decapolis;  5.  Perea. 

1.  Judea  lay  farthest  south.     It  extended  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  east  to  the  Jordan  River  and  the  Dead  Sea 
On  the  south  it  was  bordered  by  the  desert.     To  the  south- 
east was    Idumea   or   Edom.     Judea  was    a   small   territory, 
crossed  from  north  to  south  by  a  mountainous  plateau,  inter- 
rupted by  peaks,   rocky  hills,  dry  water-courses,   and   occa- 
sional valleys — a  land  of  rocks,  dwarfed  trees,  little  water, 
and  scant}-  soil.     On  the  east  this  plateau  declined  sharply 
to  the  Jordan,  which,  at  its  mouth,  lay  far  below  the  level 
of  the  ocean.    To  the  west  there  was  a  series  of  valleys,  and 
then  a  range  of  low  hills  which  bordered  the  narrow  mari- 
time plain.    The  central  plateau  sloped  gradually  to  the  south- 
ern desert. 

2.  Directly  north  of  Judea  was  Samaria,  extending  from 
the  Mediterranean   Sea  to  the  Jordan  River.     Samaria  was 
more   open   than  Judea,   \yitm'/ess   pronounced   contrasts   of 
soil  and  climate,  and  witfra  larger  area  of  tillable  soil.    These 
natural  advantages  rendered  the  land  more  accessible  to  in- 
vaders, and  its  people  more  hospitable  to  foreign  influences. 
To  the  northwest  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  stretched  out 
to  the  sea,  a  plain  of  wonderful  fertility,  with  deep,  rich  soil 
which  yielded  abundant  harvests.     It  opened  a  natural  road- 


156  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

way  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan.     On  it  some  of 
the  greatest  battles  of  the  world's  history  were  fought. 

3.  Immediately  to  the  north  was  Galilee.    It  was  bounded 
on  the  west  by  the  territory  of  Tyre,  a  Gentile  region ;  on 
the  north  by  the  river  Leontes,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Jordan 
and  the  Sea  of  Galilee.    Its  length  north  and  south  was  sixty 
miles,  its  breadth  about  thirty  miles ;  yet  in  this   small  area 
it  had  all  the  variety  of  mountain,  plain,  and  valley.     It  was 
more  generously  watered  than  Judea,  hence  more  fertile  and 
with  more  abundant  growth  of  vegetation  and  trees. 

4.  To   the  east  and  north  of  the  Sea   of  Galilee  was  a 
region  difficult  to  name.     The  population  was  more  Gentile 
than  Jewish.    There  were  a  number  of  small  States,  as  Iturea, 
Gaulanitis,    Batanea,   Trachonitis,   and   others,    which   played 
an  inconspicuous  part  in  the  history  of  the  time.     The  region 
was  sometimes  spoken  of  as  Decapolis,  the  word  meaning  ten 
cities,  and  referring  to  ten  Greek  cities  which  were  leagued 
together  in  a  more  or  less   close  commercial  and  political 
unity. 

5.  The  district  to  the  south  of  Decapolis,  bordering  the 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  was  Perea,  a  narrow  strip  wedged 
between  the  river  on  the  west  and  the  desert  of  Arabia  on 
the  east.     The  New  Testament  never  uses  the  name   Perea, 
but  uniformly  designates  the   region,   "beyond  the  Jordan." 

HI.  The  Government  During  the  Lifetime  of  Jesus. 

From  63  B.  C,  as  we  have  seen,  Palestine  was  under  the 
dominion  of  Rome.  When  Jesus  was  born  Herod  the  Great 
was  ruler  over  all  the  territory  named  above,  with  the  title 
of  king.  Herod  died  in  B.  C  4,  and  his  territory  was  divided 
between  three  of  his  sons :  Herod  Antipas  was  made  tetrarch 
of  Galilee  and  Perea;  Herod  Philip  was  given  rule  over  a 
number  of  small  States  in  the  region  of  the  Decapolis,  and 
had  the  same  title ;  Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumea  were  allotted 
to  Archelaus,  but  in  A.  D.  6  he  was  removed  by  the  emperor 
for  misrule,  and  these  three  districts  were  constituted  the 


NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES 


157 


imperial  province  of  Judea,  a  province  of  the_second  rank, 
under  a  procurator  who  had  the  command  of  the  army,  was 
the  final  resort  in  legal  procedure,  and  supervised  the  col- 
lection of  customs  and  taxes.  Of  the  earlier  procurators  the 
names  are  scarcely  known.  In  A.  D.  26  Pontius  Pilate  was 
appointed  and  held  office  until  he  was  deposed  in  A.  D.  36. 

The  Roman  government  exacted  taxes  of  two  sorts  from 
the  Jews.  The  direct  taxes,  consisting  of  a  land  tax  and' a 
poll  tax,  were  collected  by  salaried  officials.  The  customs,  or 
indirect  taxes,  were  assessed  on  exports,  and  were  collected 
by  men  who  had  bought  the  right,  and  their  representatives. 
"Both  the  chief  collectors  and  their  hirelings  are  called  pub- 
licans in  the  New  Testament.  Because  of  their  relation  to 
Rome  they  were  much  despised  by  loyal  Jews.  The  system 
readily  lent  itself  to  abuse,  and  most  of  the  publicans  were 
extortioners  and  thoroughly  unscrupulous. 

The  highest  Jewish  court  of  justice  was  the  Sanhedrin. 
It  had  jurisdiction  only  within  Judea,  but  its  influence  ex- 
tended to  Galilee  and  among  Jews  everywhere.  It  took  cog- 
nizance of  all  that  affected  Jewish  interests,  and  in  cases  of 
justice  its  judgment  was  final  except  in  capital  cases ;  the 
power  to  sentence  to  death  was  in  the  hands  of  the  proc- 
urator alone.  The  Sanhedrin  had  seventy-one  members, 
"elders,"  from  the  ranks  of  the  priestly  aristocracy,  and  from 
the  scribes.  The  high  priest  was  president. 

IV.    Political  and  Religious  Parties. 

The  Pharisees.  There  were  certain  influential  parties 
among  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Jesus.  First  in  number  and 
importance  were  the  Pharisees,  who  were  highly  regarded 
by  the  common  people.  In  their  origin  they  were  a  religious 
fraternity,  the  successors  of  "the  Pious,"  or  Hasideans,  who, 
after  the  return  from  the  exile,  insisted  on  absolute  separa- 
tion from  all  that  was  heathen,  cherished  an  unbounded  zeal 
for  the  law,  fostered  the  development  of  that  mass  of  scribal 
explanations  of  and  decisions  upon  the  law  known  as  the  oral 


158  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

law,  or  traditions,  and  with  intense  zeal  opposed  all  foreign 
influences.  The  Pharisees  first  came  into  notice  during  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees;  they  were  early  characterized  by  re- 
ligious zeal  and  a  punctilious  endeavor  to  perfectly  obey  the 
law,  both  written  and  oral,  in  all  its  details.  In  the  time 
of  Jesus  their  earnest  spirit  had  degenerated  into  spiritual 
pride  and  empty  formalism.  Their  religion  was  of  the  letter, 
and  the  living  God  had  no  place  in  their  lives  or  their  thought. 
So  far  as  they  held  a  hope  of  a  Messiah  it  was  that  God 
would  send  a  deliverer  unexpectedly  and  in  mysterious  and 
apocalyptic  fashion. 

The  Sadducees.  The  Sadducees  were  more  a  political 
than  a  religious  party.  Representing  long-latent  tendencies 
existent  among  the  Jewish  people,  they  first  became  an  or- 
ganized party  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  Their  chief 
interest  concerned  the  building-up  of  the  Jewish  State. 
Through  prominence  in  political  affairs  they  had  come  into 
contact  with  foreign  ideas,  many  of  which  they  welcomed. 
These  generated  a  worldly  spirit.  They  amassed  wealth  and 
were  recognized  as  of  the  aristocratic  class.  They  honored 
the  law  of  Moses,  but  denied  the  binding  force  of  the  oral 
Jaw.  They  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
body  and  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits.  Their  oppo- 
sition to  Jesus  was  not  so  pronounced  as  that  of  the  Phari- 
sees until  near  the  close  of  His  ministry,  when  He  came  into 
sharp  conflict  with  them.  Strange  to  say,  the  Sadducees, 
though  utterly  secular  in  spirit,  were  closely  allied  to  the 
priestly  party.  Many  of  the  priests  were  Sadducees.  Thus 
it  may  be  realized  how  entirely  vain  many  of  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  temple  service  must  have  been. 

The  Zealots.  The  Zealots  embodied  the  passionate  hatred 
of  and  resistance  to  the  foreign  rule.  They  were  ready  to 
take  advantage  of  the  least  opportunity  to  use  the  sword,  and 
hoped  by  means  of  revolution  to  set  up  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Their  hope  of  a  Messiah  was  political;  He  would  be  the 
instrument  of  God  to  overthrow  all  of  Israel's  enemies 


NEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES  159 

and  usher  in  the  golden  era  of  God's  chosen  people.  They 
were  impetuous,  hot-headed  enthusiasts,  intensely  religious. 
Simon,  the  Canaanite,  came  from  the  Zealot  ranks  into  the 
apostolic  company. 

The  Pious.  There  were  doubtless  among  the  people  of 
Jesus'  day  many  devout,  earnest  souls,  who,  living  humble, 
patient,  loving,  faithful  lives,  awaited  in  calm,  confident  ex- 
pectation the  "Consolation  of  Israel."  We  have  acquaintance 
with  some  such,  as  Simeon,  Anna,  Zachariah,  Elizabeth,  Jo- 
seph, and  Mary;  these  and  others  like  them  were  the  holy 
remnant,  the  representatives  in  her  day  of  visitation,  of  Is- 
rael's most  precious  heritage,  a  spiritual,  pure,  and  undefiled 
religion.  From  this  company  came  most  of  those  who  re- 
sponded to  Jesus'  call  and  became  charter  members  of  the 
Christian  Church. 

The  Samaritans.  This  people,  inhabitants  of  San  aria, 
though  occupying  Jewish  territory,  must  be  sharply  distin- 
guished from  the  Jews.  They  were  a  mixed  race,  descend- 
ants of  colonists  brought  into  the  country  by  the  Assyrians 
at  the  time  of  the  captivity  of  the  ten  tribes  and  later.  These 
had  intermarried  with  Jews  left  in  the  land.  When  the  Jews 
of  the  captivity  returned,  from  reasons  of  religious  exclusive- 
ness  they  refused  to  intermingle  or  have  any  dealings  with 
the  Samaritans,  and  a  mutual  enmity  sprang  up  which  per- 
sisted to  New  Testament  times.  Their  worship,  similar  to 
that  of  the  Jews,  had  its  center  on  Mt.  Gerizim,  where  a 
temple  was  built  in  the  time  of  Nehemiah.  Little  is  accu- 
rately known  concerning  their  religion  beyond  their  claim 
that  Mt.  Gerizim  was  the  chosen  place  of  God  for  His 
temple,  the  similarity  of  their  rites  and  sacrifices  to  those 
of  the  Jews,  and  their  belief  that  a  Messiah  was  to  come. 

V.   Religious  and  Social  Conditions  of  the  Epoch. 

In  the  time  of  Jesus  the  temple  was  still  ideally  the  center 
of  the  Jewish  religion.  Herod's  Temple,  replacing  that  of 
Zer^ubbabel,  although  begun  about  20  B.  C,  was  not  com- 


!0o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

pletely  finished  until  62  A.  D.,  only  eight  years  before  its 
final  destruction.  The  temple  was  the  scene  of  daily  sacri- 
fices, in  the  celebration  of  which  thousands  of  priests  en- 
gaged in  the  course  of  a  year,  and  of  prayer  and  worship. 
On  the  great  feast  days,  when  multitudes  of  Jews  came  up 
to  Jerusalem  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  it  was  the  center 
of  special  services.  Thus  the  temple  had  a  prominent  place 
in  the  religious  life  of  every  loyal  Jew. 

Synagogues  were  numerous.  Every  community  of  any 
considerable  size  had  its  synagogue.  This  institution  of  later 
Judaism  was  called  into  existence  during  the  exile,  when  the 
Jews  were  far  separated  from  the  temple.  On  the  return 
it  was  continued  and  became,  to  a  large  extent,  the  real  cen- 
ter of  the  religious,  life  of  the  people.  In  every  place  it  gave 
the  opportunity  for  religious  services  and  for  instruction. 
The  local  synagogue  was  under  the  control  of  the  elders; 
its  chief  officer  was  the  ruler,  who  was  in  direct  charge; 
the  minister  had  the  care  of  the  building  and  its  furnishings, 
administered  discipline,  and  instructed  the  children;  two 
other  officers  were  receivers  of  alms.  Services  were  held  regu- 
larly on  Sabbath  and  on  feast  days ;  and  in  some  synagogues, 
where  a  congregation  was  assured,  daily.  No  service  could 
be  held  without  the  presence  of  at  least  ten  men.  Women 
were  privileged  to  attend,  but  were  not  counted  as  members 
of  the  congregation.  The  service  consisted  of  public  prayer 
offered  by  a  designated  leader;  the  reading,  first,  from  the 
Pentateuch,  then  from  the  Prophets;  the  translation  of  the 
lessons  from  Hebrew  into  Aramaic,  the  common  speech  of 
the  people ;  and  finally  by  a  sermon,  generally  an  exposition 
of  the  lesson.  The  synagogue  also  served  as  an  elementary 
school;  in  it  children  were  regularly  instructed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. 

The  home  life  of  the  Jewish  people  was  the  nearest  ap- 
proach to  ideal  that  the  ancient  world  presented.  It  was 
strongly  pervaded  by  religion.  The  sacred  law  was  revered; 
little  boxes  containing  pieces  of  parchment,  on  which  were 


XEW  TESTAMENT  TIMES  161 

written  the  words  of  Deuteronomy  6:  4-9,  and  II :  13-21,  were 
fastened  to  the  door-post.  The  Sabbath  was  severely 
guarded.  Ceremonial  purity  was  insisted  upon,  including  the 
distinctions  between  clean  and  unclean  food,  and  the  details 
concerning  the  times  and  ways  of  fasting  and  the  wearing  of 
fringes  and  phylacteries  were  minutely  observed.  Without 
doubt  these  ceremonies  were  with  many  only  a  lifeless  form. 
Back  of  these  petty  and  wearisome  details  were  ideals  and 
customs  of  great  significance  and  worth.  Life  was  regarded 
with  seriousness,  the  name  of  Jehovah  was  reverenced,  and 
a  sincere  desire  and  purpose  existed  to  fear,  honor,  and 
serve  Him. 

Children  were  held  in  high  regard;  destruction  of  infants, 
so  common  among  most  Gentile  peoples,  was  unknown ;  to 
be  childless  was  regarded  a  reproach.  Children  were  care- 
fully instructed  in  religion,  compelled  to  memorize  long  sec- 
tions of  the  law,  and  made  familiar  with  the  nation's  history. 
Woman  held  an  honorable  position.  Manual  labor  was  never 
despised ;  every  son  was  caused  to  learn  a  trade.  The  masses 
of  the  people  were  poor,  and  their  income  very  small.  The 
houses  were  mostly  small — usually  with  one  or  two  square 
rooms,  opening  frequently  on  a  square  court — and  roofed 
over  with  thatch.  The  furniture  was  simple:  a  couch  or 
mat  for  sleeping,  and  a  few  cooking  utensils ;  this  was  about 
all,  except  in  the  houses  of  the  rich.  Pictures  and  statuary 
were  not  used,  because  forbidden  by  the  law  (Ex.  20:4). 
The  houses  were  grouped  together  in  villages  and  towns., 
from  which  the  shepherds  and  those  who  tilled  the  soil  went 
out  to  their  daily  work  in  the  fields. 

Lesson  Outline: 

Government   preceding   the    Christian    era :    The    Maccabean 

period ;  the  Roman  period. 
I'hysical  and  political  geography  of  Palestine. 
The  government  during  the  lifetime  of  Jesus. 
Political  and  religious  parties. 
Religious  and  social  conditions. 


162  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Books  for  Reference: 

Waddy-Moss,  "From  Malachi  to  Matthew." 

Riggs,  "History  of  the  Jewish  People  During  the  Maccabean 

and  Roman  Periods." 

Hastings,  "One  Volume  Bible  Dictionary." 
Mathews,  "The  Messianic  Hope." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  development  of  the  ideas  of  the  Messiah. 

2.  The  history  and  tenets  of  the  Pharisees. 

3.  The  life  of  Herod  the  Great. 

4.  The  history  and  the  people  of  Galilee. 

5.  Judaism  as  a  religion. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  is  the  explanation  of  the  numerous  political  changes 

in  Palestine  ? 

2.  Why  did  Jesus  so  severely  condemn  the  Pharisees? 

3.  What  was  the  distinguishing  difference  between  the  Phari- 

sees and  the  Sadducees  ? 

4.  What  were  the  chief  religious  institutions  in  the  time  of 

Jesus  ? 

5.  Why  were  the  publicans  so  despised  a  class   among  the 

Jews  ? 


PALESTINE 

IN  THE 

TIME  OF  JESUS 

(4B.C.-30A.D.) 


pynglit.  1906.  by  Cburlet  Fo«t«r  Kent 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS 

THE  NEW  TESTAMENT  HAS  TWENTY-SEVEN  BOOKS.  Four 
of  these  books  are  grouped  about  a  Person,  Jesus  Christ. 
Their  purpose  is  'to  present  Him,  His  acts,  and  His  words. 
One  book  has  for  its  theme  the  ministry  of  His  apostles,  and 
their  work  in  relation  to  the  founding  of  His  Church.  Of  the 
remaining  books  the  most  are  written  to  His  followers,  either 
individuals  or  Churches,  for  instruction  in  the  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion,  for  practical  counsel,  for  warning  and  ex- 
hortation. Thus  it  is  seen  that  in  the  entire  New  Testament 
library  a  personality  is  supreme.  To  know  the  New  Testa- 
ment, tcTbe  prepared  to  teach  it,  one  must  be  acquainted  with 
Jesus  Christ.  It  is  all-important  that  He  be  pre-eminent  in 
our  thought  as  He  was  in  the  thought  of  the  people  of  the 
Xew  Testament.  We  must  learn  habitually  to  read  and  study 
the  entire  New  Testament  with  Jesus  Christ  standing  con- 
stantly in  the  foreground. 

Jesus  lived  almost  two  thousand  years  ago.  Through  all 
these  centuries  men  have  been  thinking  and  speaking  of  Him 
in  terms  of  their  own  times,  and  He  has  been  the  subject 
of  art,  of  poetry,  and  of  doctrine-making.  Most  of  us  had 
our  ideas  of  Him  before  we  came  to  any  thoughtful  study 
of  the  Gospels.  But  to  be  exact  teachers,  it  is  necessary  for 
us  to  go  to  the  Gospels  and  find  for  ourselves  the  Jesus 
which  they  portray,  and  thereby  ^ome  to  a  first-hand  knowl- 
edge of  Him. 

^  1.   Sources  for  the  Life  of  Jesus.    We  can  not  become  ac- 
quainted with  Jesus  anywhere  else  than  in  the  New  Testa- 

163 


j<f4  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

tnent.  It  is  our  only  source  of  detailed  information  concern- 
ing Him  dating  from  anywhere  near  His  own  time.  Of  sec- 
ular writers  only  Tacitus,  Pliny,  Suetonius,  and  Josephus 
make  any  mention  of  Him,  and  none  speak  of  Him  at  length. 
Of  New  Testament  books  the  earlier  epistles  of  Paul  are 
nearest  in  point  of  time  to  His  life.  .They  give  us,  inciden- 
tally, considerable  information  concerning  Him,  such  as  the 
record  of  His  appearances  after  His  resurrection,  His  Davidic 
descent,  His  poverty,  and  the  meekness  and  gentleness  of 
His  nature.  They  contain  also  .much  of  His  teaching,  but 
in  a  distinct  Pauline  form  and  phraseology.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  the  four  Gospels  must  be  the  great  principal 
source  of  our  intimate  knowledge  of  Jesus.  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  Gospels  are  not  biographies  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  word  is  commonly  used.  The  biographical  pur- 
pose is  combined  with  the  pedagogical.  The  aim  of  the 
writers  was  to  teach  about  Jesus — who  He  was,  His  mission 
and  work — not  merely  to  give  the  facts  concerning  His  life, 
2.  Birth  and  Early  Life.  Jesus  was  born  in  Bethlehem 
of  Judea.  The  date  can  not  be  fixed  with  certainty,  but  was 
probably  between  the  years  4  and  6  B.  C.  Joseph,  accom- 
panied by  Mary,  had  come  to  Bethlehem  from  Nazareth,  of 
Galilee,  to  be  enrolled  at  his  ancestral  home,  a  census  hav- 
ing been  commanded  by  the  Emperor  Augustus.  After  the 
fulfillment  of  the  religious  rites  required  by  the  law  at  the 
birth  of  a  male  child,  from  fear  of  Herod  the  little  company 
fled  to  Egypt,  where  they  remained  until  Herod's  death,  and 
then  returned  to  Nazareth.  One  only  of  the  Gospels  has  any 
reference  to  these  intervening  years  of  childhood  and  youth, 
but  Luke's  brief  mention  is  rich  in  suggestion.  From  it  a 
beautiful  picture  may  be  truthfully  drawn  of  an  ideal  child- 
hood in  which  a  strong  and  vigorous  body,  an  alert  mind, 
a  submissive  will,  and  an  obedient  heart  all  were  important 
elements.  We  may  well  beHeve  that  in  the  ensuing  years  of 
silence  and  obscurity,  through  daily  discipline,  earnest  and 
prolonged  searching  to  know  and  to  do  the  Father's  will,  and 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  165 

unvarying  obedience  to  the  Spirit's  leading,  the  youth  Jesus 
was  coming  gradually  into  possession  of  that  marvelous  per- 
fection of  character  which,  revealed  in  the  brief  period  of 
His  active  ministry,  has  received  the  reverent  admiration  of 
all  succeeding  centuries. 

The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist  immediately  preceded 
that  of  Jesus.  John  was  a  unique  figure,  reminding  us  ir> 
many  respects  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  Apparently  without  any 
previous  consultation  with  Jesus,  conscious  within  himself 
that  a  day  of  great  spiritual  opportunity  and  privilege  was 
at  hand,  he  went  forth  into  the  region  of  Judea  and  the 
Jordan  Valley  to  preach  a  stern  message  of  denunciation,  of 
warning,  and  of  invitation  to  repentance.  He  offered  baptism 
in  the  Jordan  as  a  confession  of  sin,  as  a  profession  of  re- 
pentance, and  as  a  pledge  of  remission.  He  made  no  attempt 
to  attach  disciples  to  himself,  but  rather  spoke  of  a  Coming: 
One,  whose  baptism  would  be  spiritual,  and  who  would  ex- 
ercise a  ministry  of  judgment. 

Jesus  set  His  seal  of  approval  on  John's  work  by  pre- 
senting Himself  for  baptism.  John  at  first  demurred,  then 
consented  to  baptize  Him.  As  Jesus  came  from  the  water,. 
He  was  conscious  of  the  Holy  Spirit  coming  upon  Him  and 
of  the  Father's  attestation  of  His  Divine  Sonship.  Luke  in- 
serts in  his  account  the  parenthetical  statement  that  Jesus  at 
this  time  was  about  thirty  years  of  age. 

The  baptism  was  immediately  followed  by  a  period  of 
special  temptation.  There  had  come  to  Jesus  a  new  sense  of 
His  power.  Power  always  brings  temptation.  How  should 
this  power  be  used?  The  evil  suggestion  was  for  ministry 
to  self,  for  vain  display,  for  selfish  aggrandizement.  But 
Jesus  had  hidden  the  Word  of  God  in  His  heart,  and  on 
every  occasion  of  temptation  the  Word  aided  Him  in  suc- 
cessful defense. 

The  fourth  Gospel,  as  the  second,  has  no  account  of  the 
birth  and  early  life  of  Jesus.  But  the  Gospel  of  John  alone 
has  a  vivid  account  of  certain  opening  events  of  Jesus' 


!66  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

ministry.  (See  John  i :  19— 4:  42.)  John  the  Baptist  intro- 
duced Jesus,  first  to  priests  and  Levites  from  Jerusalem,  and 
then  to  some  of  his  own  disciples,  in  such  a  way  as  to  enlist 
them  as  followers  of  Jesus.  There  followed  what  was  prob- 
ably a  brief  period  of  preaching  and  teaching  in  Judea,  then 
in  Galilee,  and  then  again  in  Judea. 

3.  The  Public  Ministry.  With  the  imprisonment  of  j'ohn 
the  Baptist,  by  Herod,  the  public  ministry  of  Jesus  began. 
He  withdrew  from  Judea  into  Galilee,  removed  His  residence 
from  Nazareth  to  Capernaum,  and  from  that  city  as  a  center 
began  to  preach  to  the  people  that  the  kingdom  of  God  had 
come,  and  to  teach  in  the  synagogues.  He  extended  to  four 
men — Simon,  Andrew,  James,  and  John — already  His  disci- 
ples— an  invitation  to  turn  from  their  occupation  of  fishinr  and 
to  become  "fishers  of  men."  He  commanded  the  attention  and 
interest  of  the  multitude  by  exercising  a  ministry  of  healing 
in  the  vicinity  of  Capernaum,  and  then,  when  they  thronged 
about  Him  with  excess  of  curiosity,  He  departed  on  a  tour 
of  preaching  and  healing  through  Galilee.  As  He  went  from 
place  to  place  He  drew  after  Him  certain  disciples.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  that  there  were  more  of  these  followers 
than  are  named  in  the  Gospel  narratives.  We  know  that 
among  them  was  Levi,  the  publican,  who  became  Matthew, 
the  author  of  the  first  Gospel.  Erelong  from  the  company 
of  disciples  He  chose  twelve  apostles  to  be  His  authorized 
representatives,  to  go  forth  in  His  name  and  impart  His 
teaching  to  the  world.  To  them  and  the  whole  company  of 
disciples  He  gave  that  most  remarkable  summary  of  His 
teaching,  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Accompanied  by  the 
apostolic  band,  and  at  times  by  a  larger  number,  He  itiner- 
ated from  place  to  place,  ministering  in  body,  mind,  and  soul 
to  all  who  were  in  need,  and  using  His  acts  of  mercy  and 
kindness  as  means  of  enforcing  His  spoken  message. 

The  teaching  of  Jesus  centered  in  His  proclamation  of  the 
Father's  love  and  care  for  men,  and  His  declaration  of  the 
duty  of  men  to  love  God  and  their  fellow-men  with  theif 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  167 

whole  hearts,  and  to  live  lives  of  inward  purity  and  self- 
sacrificing  service.  He  began  His  teaching  by  proclaiming 
that  the  kingdom  of  God  was  at  hand,  and  exhorting  men 
to  repent  and  believe  the  Good  News.  Only  those  could  be 
members  of  the  kingdom  who  possessed  the  true  righteous- 
ness, not  that  of  the  letter,  but  of  the  spirit,  consisting  in 
being  like  God :  merciful,  forgiving,  long-suffering,  gentle, 
peaceable,  and  kind.  No  good  work  was  to  be  performed 
for  honor,  glory,  or  the  praise  of  men.  Life  was  to  be  lived 
trustfully,  without  anxious  care  or  worry.  The  Father  ever 
regarded  His  own  and  would  supply  every  need.  Whatever 
was  asked  of  Him  in  faith  would  be  granted.  Little  children 
were  of  the  kingdom,  and  men  were  commanded  to  be  like 
them.  To  realize  the  life  and  character  of  the  child  of  God 
constituted  the  true  riches,  the  wealth  which  could  not  be 
lost  or  destroyed,  and  to  attain  to  this  must  be  the  constant 
ideal ;  to  be  a  disciple  one  must  be  willing  to  sacrifice  all 
lower  pleasures  and  aims,  even  to  lose  one's  life.  His  dis- 
ciples were  to  be  a  light  to  the  world.  Even  as  His  words 
contained  the  life-giving  principle,  so  His  followers  must  be 
a  leavening  influence  in  the  world.  His  kingdom  would  not 
prevail  suddenly,  nor  come  by  observation,  but  gradually  and 
silently.  No  power  of  earth  or  hell  would  be  able  to  triumph 
against  it.  Into  it  would  be  gathered  peoples  of  all  lands 
and  races.  Its  members  possessing  eternal  life,  would  live 
forever  with  God  and  share  His  glory  and  His  joy.  This 
was  the  Gospel  which,  reinforced  by  constant  works  of  kindly 
ministry  and  by  many  illustrations  from  nature  and  the  com- 
mon life  about  Him,  Jesus  preached  through  Judea,  Galilee, 
and  Samaria.  He  put  forth  no  public  assertions  of  Messiah- 
ship,  and  when  John  the  Baptist,  becoming  doubtless  some- 
what impatient,  sent  from  his  lonely  prison  cell  to  ask  Him 
whether  He  was  the  Messiah  who  should  come,  He  replied 
only  in  terms  of  the  merciful  ministry  which  He  was  bearing  i 
tp  men. 

But  there  was   not  lacking  those  who   found   reason   for 


168  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

offense  even  in  such  a  gracious  and  beautiful  life  as  this. 
The  Pharisees,  the  dominant  religious  party  of  the  time 
among  the  Jews,  were  stirred,  first  to  jealousy,  and  then  to 
hatred.  The  common  people  heard  Him  gladly,  and  many 
turned  from  their  proud  and  haughty  self-appointed  teachers 
to  Him,  the  meek  and  lowly  One,  who  by  His  spirit  and  His 
words  revealed  the  Heavenly  Father  anew  to  them.  This 
stirred  the  Pharisees  to  jealousy.  Jesus  did  not  patronize 
them,  but  boldly  exposed  their  hypocrisy,  their  spiritual  pride, 
their  lack  of  Godlike  qualities  of  character,  and  condemned 
them  in  severest  terms.  This  aroused  their  enmity  and  hos- 
tility. So  long  as  He  was  comparatively  unknown  they  made 
no  pronounced  manifestation  against  Him.  As  the  knowl- 
edge of  Him  spread  they  began  to  plan  open  and  pronounced 
opposition.  The  multitudes  also,  who  at  first  followed  Him 
from  place  to  place,  began  to  desert  Him.  They,  too,  were 
•disappointed  in  Him.  They  wanted  a  popular  hero,  a  spec- 
tacular Messiah,  a  political  leader  who  would  organize  revolt 
against  Rome.  He  repeatedly  refused  to  accede  to  their  Mes- 
sianic ideas  and  demands,  and  presented  His  mission  in  its 
exclusively  spiritual  character.  It  was  not  His  work,  He  de- 
clared, to  feed  the  multitudes  with  bread,  such  as  Moses  gave, 
but  to  impart  to  them  His  spirit  and  His  truth.  At  this 
epoch  many  superficial  disciples  forsook  him,  but  the  twelve 
remained  true.  He  had  given  Himself  largely  to  instructing 
and  training  them,  giving  them  practical  training  by  taking 
them  upon  tours  of  evangelization  and  healing,  and  then  in- 
creasing their  self-reliance  and  enlarging  their  experience  by 
sending  them  out  two  and  two  through  Galilee.  He  told 
them  little  of  Himself.  Gradually,  however,  they  were  com- 
ing to  their  own  appreciation  and  valuation  of  Him,  and 
when,  on  a  journey  for  retirement  and  rest  in  the  region  of 
Caesarea  Philippi,  He  asked  them  for  their  estimate  of  Him, 
Peter  as  spokesman  declared  their  conviction  that  He  was 
the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  Jesus  accepted  this  confession 
from  their  lips,  and  declared  to  them  that  it  was  heaven-born. 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  169 

But  he  further  indicated  that  the  time  had  not  yet  come 
for  this  to  be  spread  abroad,  and  asked  them  to  tell  no 
man. 

From  this  very  hour  a  new  element  entered  into  the  teach- 
ing of  Jesus ;  He  began  to  declare  to  them  that  He  must 
suffer  rejection  and  condemnation  from  the  hands  of  the 
leaders  of  the  nation,  and  be  killed  by  them.  At  first  the 
disciples  revolted  from  this,  but  afterward  appear  to  have 
placed  it  in  the  background  of  their  thought.  Jesus  declared 
to  them  that  this  test  of  rejection  and  condemnation  which 
He  had  already  met  in  anticipation  was  also  the  test  of  true 
discipleship ;  that  His  disciples  could  only  gain  the  true  life 
by  a  readiness  to  lose  their  present  life  for  His  sake.  This 
first  pronounced  teaching  of  Jesus  concerning  His  rejection 
was  followed  very  shortly  by  His  transfiguration.  We  can 
not  but  feel  that  the  two  have  a  very  intimate  connection. 

It  is  difficult — indeed,  quite  impossible— to  fix  chronolog- 
ical periods  in  the  life  of  our  Lord.  Some  scholars  have 
maintained  that  the  active  ministry  extended  over  a  period  of 
between  three  and  four  years.  Eminent  authorities  have  con- 
tended for  a  period  of  one  and  a  half  years.  None  of  the 
evangelists  were  sufficiently  interested  in  the  time  element  to 
furnish  us  with  conclusive  data.  Upon  this  all  are  agreed, 
from  the  occasion  of  Peter's  confession  events  rapidly  crowd 
on  to  the  tragic  end.  A  brief  period  was  occupied  in  the 
further  intimate  instruction  of  the  company  of  apostles  and 
disciples;  Capernaum  was  revisited;  an  autumn  journey  was 
taken  to  Jerusalem  to  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (see  John 
7 :  i — 8 :  59)  ;  a  brief  period  of  ministry  was  spent  in  Perea, 
during  which,  by  the  aid  of  the  seventy,  an  effort  was  made 
to  carry  the  Gospel  to  that  section  of  Jewish  territory  to 
which  Jesus  had  previously  given  little  attention  (see  Luke 
9:51 — 19:28,  especially  10:1-24);  then  came  the  triumphal 
entry  and  martyrdom. 

4.  The  Passion  Week  and  the  Forty  Days.  The  triumphal 
entry  was  Jesus'  public  proclamation  of  Messiahship.  Be- 


17o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

fore  this  He  had  carefully  refrained  from  such  an  announce- 
ment and  had  given  Himself  to  a  ministry  of  mercy  and  to 
acquainting  His  followers  with  His  spirit  and  His  teaching. 
Now  the  time  had  come  when  He  desired  it  to  be  understood 
that  He  was  the  Christ,  and  to  this  end  He  carefully  planned 
the  fulfillment  of  a  distinctly  understood  Messianic  prophecy, 
and  accepted  from  the  people  Messianic  titles.  The  triumphal 
entry  probably  took  place  on  Sunday,  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  On  the  next  day  Jesus  again  asserted  His  royal 
authority  by  the  cleansing  of  the  temple.  Tuesday  was  a 
day  of  conflict  with  the  Jewish  leaders.  Boldly  He  declared 
that  they  fought  against  the  Lord,  but  warning  and  condem- 
nation of  their  evil  course  only  intensified  their  enmity  and 
deepened  their  determination  to  take  His  life  (see  Mark 
11:27 — 12:12).  Probably  on  the  evening  of  this  very  day 
the  conspiracy  was  entered  into  between  the  chief  priests  and 
Judas  Iscariot  for  His  arrest.  Wednesday  was  spent,  it  is 
thought,  at  Bethany  in  quiet  retreat  with  His  friends.  On 
the  evening  of  Thursday  the  Last  Supper  was  celebrated,  and 
the  Master,  clearly  foreseeing  what  was  about  to  take  place, 
spoke  His  farewell  messages  of  instruction  and  consultation 
to  His  own.  During  that  same  night  He  was  taken  by  the 
treachery  of  one  of  the  twelve,  and  led  bound  for  trial,  first 
to  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin,  then  to  Pilate,  the  Roman  proc- 
urator of  Judea.  The  charge  brought  against  Him  was  that 
He  blasphemed  by  calling  Himself  the  Son  of  God,  and  that 
He  was  a  traitor  to  Rome  because  He  claimed  to  be  a  king. 
Pilate  was  disposed  to  release  Him  on  the  ground  of  no  ade- 
quate evidence  in  support  of  the  charge;  but  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  insistent  and  angry  demand  of  the  mob,  led 
by  the  chief  priests,  cowardly  delivered  Him  to  their  will, 
consenting  to  His  crucifixion.  The  turbulence  of  the  mob 
and  the  cupidity  of  the  favor-seeking  official  are  clearly  indi- 
cated by  Luke's  statement:  "They  were  urgent  with  loud 
voices,  asking  that  He  might  be  crucified.  And  their  voices 
prevailed.  And  Pilate  gave  sentence  that  what  they  aske«4 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  171 

for  should  be  done.  .  .  .  Jesus  he  delivered  up  to  their 
will."  (Luke  23:  23-25.) 

The  sentence  of  Pilate  was  carried  out  with  unseemly 
haste.  Before  the  setting  of  Friday's  sun  the  greatest  tragedy 
of  the  world's  history  had  been  enacted  and  the  dead  body 
of  the  Man  of  Galilee  lay  in  the  rock-hewn  tomb  of  Joseph 
of  Arimathea.  It  remained  for  the  guilty  conspirators  them- 
selves to  give  largest  credence  to  the  declaration  of  Jesus 
that  He  would  rise  again.  While  His  disciples  in  sorrow  and 
despair  dispersed  to  their  former  homes,  the  chief  priests 
and  the  Pharisees  were  using  every  means  to  make  sure  His 
tomb.  But  His  spirit  could  not  be  bound,  and  when,  at  the 
dawn  of  Sunday,  woman's  devotion  led  two  on  love's  errand 
of  ministry  to  a  dead  body,  they  found  an  empty  tomb.  Jesus 
had  risen  from  the  dead. 

After  His  resurrection,  Jesus  appeared  to  His  disciples 
on  several  occasions  at  intervals  during  a  period  of  forty 
days.  At  such  times  He  reassured  their  faith  in  Him  as  the 
Christ,  declared  to  them  that  it  was  inevitable  that  He  should 
be  rejected,  should  suffer,  and  should  rise  again;  gave  to 
them  the  Great  Commission  of  world  evangelization,  and 
promised  them  His  presence  and  His  Spirit's  power  in  its 
fulfillment.  Finally  at  Bethany  He  departed  from  them  in 
bodily  presence,  having  given  to  them  His  benediction  and 
having  received  from  them  their  worship  as  Master  and  Lord. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The  central  theme  of  the  New  Testament. 

Sources  for  the  life  of  Jesus. 

Birth  and  early  life. 

The  public  ministry. 

The  Passion  Week  and  the  forty  days. 


Books  for  Reference: 

Farrar,  "The  Life  of  Christ." 
Gilbert,  "The  Student's  Life  of  Jesus." 

f      Edersheim,  "The  Life  and  Times  of  Jesus  the  Messiah.** 
Stevens,  "The  Teaching  of  Jesus." 


172 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Jesus'  teaching  on  sin. 

2.  The  attitude  of  Jesus  towards  the  Old  Testament. 

3.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  the  theme,  the  main  divisions, 

the  central  teachings. 

4.  Light  on  the  life  of  Jesus  from  the  Epistles. 

5.  The  historical  evidence  for  the  Resurrection. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  our  knowledge  of  Jesus? 

2.  In  what  did  discipleship  consist  for  the  first  followers  of 

Jesus  ? 

3.  Can  the  teachings  of  Jesus  be  practically  applied  now  in 

every-day  life  ? 

4.  Why  was  Jesus  crucified? 

5.  What   was   the   attitude   of  Jesus   toward   the    Messianic 

ideals  of  His  time? 


THE  LIFE  OF  JESUS  173 


Chronological  Outline  of  the  Life  of  Jesus. 

(The  chronology  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  can  not  be  defi- 
nitely determined.  The  following  scheme  presents  the  general 
outline  of  Jesus'  life  according  to  consensus  of  scholarly 
opinion.  The  subdivisions  with  dates  are  presented  only  as 
a  possible  arrangement.) 

1.  The  Thirty  Years  of  Silence.    From  the  birth  of  Jesus, 
5  B.  C,  to  the  beginning  of  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist, 
summer  of  26  A.  D. 

2.  The  Opening  Events  of  Jesus'  Ministry.    From  the  be- 
ginning of  John's  ministry,  summer  of  26  A.  D.,  to  the  public 
appearance  of  Jesus  in  Jerusalem,  Passover,  April,  27  A.  D. 

3.  The  Early  Judean  Ministry.    From  the  public  appear- 
ance of  Jesus  in  Jerusalem,  Passover,  April,  27  A.  D.,  until 
the  return  to  Galilee,  December,  27  A.  D. 

4.  The  Galilean  Ministry.    From  the  return  to  Galilee  in 
December,  27  A.  D.,  until  the  final  departure  from  Galilee  in 
November,  29  A.  D. 

5.  The  Perean  Ministry.     From  the  final  departure  from 
Galilee  in  November,  29  A.  D.,  to  the  final  arrival  at  Jeru- 
salem, before  the  Passover,  April,  30  A.  D. 

6.  The  Passion   Week.     From  the  final  arrival  at  Jeru- 
salem, April,  30  A.  D.,  to  the  resurrection. 

7.  The  Forty  Days.     From  the   resurrection,  April,  30 
A.  D.,  to  the  ascension,  May,  30  A.  D. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE   GOSPELS 

How  the  New  Testament  Came  to  Be.  The  earliest  doc- 
uments of  Christianity  which  have  come  down  to  our  own 
age  are  certain  letters  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  Jesus  Himself 
wrote  nothing.  After  His  ascension  His  followers  were  at 
first  content  to  repeat  His  teachings  from  memory,  and  in- 
asmuch as  it  was  generally  believed  among  them  that  He 
would  return  within  their  lifetime,  probably  no  need  was 
realized  for  written  records  of  His  life  and  deeds.  As  soon 
as  Churches  were  established  the  relation  of  dependence 
between  the  Church  and  its  founder  called  for  communica- 
tions between  them.  Certain  of  these  communications,  by 
no  means  all  of  them,  escaped  destruction  and  remain  to 
us  as  the  first  written  records  of  the  Christian  religion.  As 
the  generation  of  those  who  had  seen  and  known  Christ  in 
the  flesh  began  to  pass  away,  and  as  Christianity  spread  far 
beyond  the  territorial  bounds  of  Jesus'  own  work,  the  need 
was  felt  for  accurate  accounts  of  His  words  and  acts.  Thus 
the  Gospels  were  called  into  existence. 

The  Gospels  no  doubt  took  form  gradually.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  they  sprang  at  once  into  their  present 
full-grown  and  finished  state.  Back  of  them  lie  collections 
of  the  sayings  of  Jesus,  reports  of  sermons  and  conversa- 
tions, fragmentary  records  of  sections  of  His  ministry.  Just 
as  a  biographer  first  accumulates  his  material  in  the  way 
of  records,  printed  utterances,  traditions  of  sayings,  recollec- 
tions of  friends  and  acquaintances,  so  doubtless  the  Gospel 
writers  utilized  already  existing  records. 

174 


THE  GOSPELS  175 

Time  Represented  in  Writing  and  Literary  Form.  The 
Xew  Testament  differs  from  the  Old  both  in  respect  to 
length  of  time  covered  in  writing  and  in  variety  of  literary 
form  represented.  It  is  the  expression  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  earliest  Christian  consciousness.  One  hundred  twenty- 
five  years  at  most  represents  the  period  within  which  the 
books  were  written.  The  literary  forms  are  fewer;  the 
books  themselves  may  all  be  classified  as  historical,  episto- 
lary, or  apocalyptic.  Occasional  examples  of  some  other  lit- 
erary forms — as  poetry,  parable,  and  oratory — are  to  be  found 
within  the  various  books. 

On  the  following  page  will  be  found  an  arrangement  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  probable  order  of 
their  writing.  It  would  immensely  aid  the  student  in  his 
understanding  of  Christianity  to  take  up  the  study  of  the 
books  in  the  order  of  their  writing,  but  this  for  our  present 
purpose  seems  impracticable.  The  student  should,  however, 
study  this  table  until  it  becomes  familiar  to  him,  and  until 
he  fully  realizes  that  the  common  order  in  which  the  books 
are  presented  in  our  New  Testament  is  quite  an  arbitrary  one. 

The  Language  of  the  New  Testament.  Although  all  the 
apostles  were  Hebrews,  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
were  written  in  the  Greek  language.  As  one  effect  of  the 
conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Greek  language  had 
become  widely  diffused  and  was  the  common  medium  of 
literary  expression  throughout  the  ancient  world.  The 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  peculiar  idiom,  differing 
in  vocabulary,  structure,  and  style  from  the  classical  form 
of  the  language,  and  is  commonly  called  Hellenistic  Greek. 
Aramaic  was  the  common  spoken  language  of  Palestine  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  and  traces  of  this  language  are  found 
on  the  pages  of  the  New  Testament. 


176 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


DATES  ASSIGNED  TO  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 
BY  REPRESENTATIVE  MODERN  SCHOLARS. 


Conybeare 
andHowson. 

tt 

I 

5 

r 

a 

a 
>-t 

2 

o 
o 

b 

<T  3. 
B  o 

ES 

o 

•1 

01 

About  50 

45-62 
End  of  52 

53 
Probably  54 

57o 

57-58 
About  58 
62 
63 
63 
63 
Between  63-65 
Between  63-65 
Between  63-65 
Probably  65-67 
Probably  65-68 
66-70 
'   68-72 
Probably  70-80 
Probably  70-80 
Uncertain,  say  66-68 
Probably  about  66 
Probably  68-70 
Probably  90-100 
Probably  90-100 
Probably  90-100 
Probably  90-100 

Mayer,  40-50 
Milligan,  Prob.  50-51 
Milligan,  Prob.  50-51 
Lightfoot,  57-58 
Lias,  57 
Plummer,  About  58 
Sanday,  58 
Lightfoot,  About  58-5} 
Lightfoot,  62-63 
Lightfoot,  62-63 
Lightfoot,  62-63 
Humphreys,  66-67 
Humphreys,  66-67 
Humphreys,  66-67 
Bigg,  About  65 
B'gg,  58-64 
Swete,  Before  70 
Allen,  65-75 
Plummer,  75-80 
Lumby,  Prob.  about  5fi 
Bigg,  Prob.  about  65 
Goodspeed,  Prob.  90-96 
Swete,  90-96 
Westcott,  About  100 
Westcott,  90-100 
Westcott,  90-100 
Westcott,  90-100 

iThessalonians,  . 
2  Thessalonians,  . 

52 
53 

58 

62 

6? 

62 

Ephesians,  .... 
I  Timothy  

62 
67 

Titus  

6-r 

68 

Jude  

About  60-62 
About  50 
About  68-70 
About  70 
70-80 
After  So 
175-200 

i  Peter  

Mark  

Matthew  

Z,uke,  .  

Acts,  

2  Peter  

Revelation,  .... 

70 

IJohn  

jjohn  

Jjohn,  

THE  GOSPELS  177 

I.    The  Four  Gospels. 

Gospel.  The  word  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Godspell, 
meaning  "God  story,"  and  is  used  as  a  translation  of  the 
Greek  term  meaning  "good  tidings."  As  Jesus  used  it  the 
word  meant  the  good  news  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  or  the 
good  tidings  of  the  favor  and  love  of  God.  After  the  res- 
urrection it  was  used  to  mean  the  good  tidings  about  Christ, 
and  so  later  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  written  record  of 
the  life  and  words  of  Jesus.  The  New  Testament  has  four 
distinct  records  of  His  life,  which  are  spoken  of  as  the  Four 
Gospels. 

Resemblances  and  Differences.  The  student  of  the  Gos- 
pels soon  discovers  that  they  fall  naturally  into  two  un- 
equal groups — one  of  three  books,  the  other  of  one.  Mat- 
thew, Mark,  and  Luke  have  many  characteristics  in  com- 
mon, while  John  stands  by  itself.  The  resemblances  of  the 
first  three  Gospels  extend  to  a  similarity  in  general  content, 
in  quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  in  sequence  of  events, 
in  purpose,  and  in  general  atmosphere,  and  are  such  that  the 
three,  as  distinguished  from  the  fourth,  are  spoken  of  as 
the  Synoptic  Gospels,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  "to- 
gether" and  "view ;"  that  is,  a  common  view. 

The  Gospel  of  John  is  distinguished  from  the  Synoptic 
Gospels  in  various  particulars,  of  which  we  note  these: 
(i)  John  is  chiefly  interested  in  the  Judean  ministry  of 
Jesus,  while  the  interest  of  the  synoptists  centers  in  Galilee. 
Much  the  larger  part  of  the  common  synoptic  narrative  deals 
with  the  Galilean  ministry,  and  almost  none  of  this  is  par- 
alleled in  John.  On  the  other  hand,  the  synoptists  narrate 
in  detail  only  one  visit  of  Jesus  to  Jerusalem,  while  John 
tells  us  of  five  such  occasions.  (2)  John  is  more  concerned 
with  the  teaching  of  Jesus  and  its  interpretation  than  with 
an  historical  record  of  the  events  of  Jesus'  life  and  ministry. 
He  pays  little  attention  to  sequence  of  happenings.  He  re- 
fcords  only  those  events  which  serve  his  purpose  of  inter- 
pretation. "  He  alone  records  significant  conversations  of 
12 


I78  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Jesus,  such  as  that  with  Nicodemus  and  that  with  the  woman 
of  Samaria.  While  the  synoptists  tell  of  many  miracles, 
John  records  comparatively  few,  and  those  almost  inciden- 
tally. Curiously .  enough,  however,  John  gives  no  account 
of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  the  teaching  of  which  is  ac- 
corded large  space  by  Matthew  and  Luke.  John  also  re- 
cords fewer  of  Jesus'  parables  than  the  other  evangelists. 
(3)  From  the  time  of  the  Church  Fathers  the  Gospel  of  John 
has  been  known  as  the  most  "spiritual"  of  the  Gospels.  The 
synoptists  are  content  to  record  many  incidents  without  com- 
ment ;  John  is  interested  in  discerning  the  spiritual  meaning 
of  these  events.  John  treats  the  ministry  in  a  more  sub- 
jective manner  than  do  the  synoptists. 

The  Synoptic  Problem.  The  resemblances  between  the 
first  three  Gospels,  noticed  above,  has  given  rise  in  modern 
times  to  inquiry  into  the  relationship  between  these  Gospels 
and  its  explanation.  This  question,  an  exceedingly  interest- 
ing and  intricate  one,  is  commonly  called  the  Synoptic  Prob- 
lem. We  can  note  only  a  few  of  the  facts  with  which  schol- 
ars must  deal  in  the  investigation  of  the  question:  (i)  Simi- 
larities. The  synoptists  have  the  same  general  outline  of  the 
life  and  ministry.  Beyond  this  they  record  very  largely  the 
same  events  in  these  periods.  This  fact  becomes  the  more 
striking  when  we  remember  that  the  entire  record  is  of  small 
compass,  containing  a  mere  fractional  part  of  the  Master's 
words  and  deeds.  These  common  events  are  given  in  the 
same  order.  For  the  various  accounts  of  single  events  the 
same  form  of  expression  is  used.  Not  only  so,  but  the 
similarity  frequently  extends  to  the  use  in  common  of  cer- 
tain rare  and  unusual  words.  (2)  Differences.  Each  Gospel 
is  distinct  in  purpose,  as  our  later  study  will  show.  Identical 
events  are  interpreted  by  the  different  writers  in  accord  with 
their  respective  purposes.  In  some  instances  there  are 
wholly  independent  accounts  of  the  same  event.  The  sum 
total  of  events  are  not  identical;  each  Gospel  is  peculiar 
in  having  some  incidents  not  elsewhere  given,  and  in  omit- 
ting certain  incidents  given  by  the  others.  Luke,  for  ex- 


THE  GOSPELS  179 

ample,  has  a  long  section  on  the  ministry  in  Perea  (Luke  10: 
25 — 18:  14),  which  has  no  parallel  in  either  of  the  other 
Gospels,  while  Matthew  and  Mark  record  a  journey  of  Jesus 
toward  Tyre  and  Sidon  and  return  through  Decapolis  to  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  (Matt.  15:21-39;  Mark  7:31—8:21),  to 
which  Luke  does  not  allude. 

There  are  certain  ascertained  facts  which  must  be  used 
in  the  working-out  of  any  theory  explanatory  of  these  re- 
semblances and  differences:  (i)  The  Gosp.el  of  Mark  is  a 
common  source  used  by  both  Matthew  and  Luke.  This  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  material  common  to  all  three  Gos- 
pels there  is  a  much  closer  resemblance  between  Mark  and 
Matthew  and  between  Mark  and  Luke  than  between  Mat- 
thew and  Luke.  (2)  Before  the  Gospels  were  written  oral 
tradition  concerning  the  life  and  sayings  of  Jesus  had  attained 
to  more  or  less  fixed  form,  and  this  was  familiar  to  all  the 
evangelists.  (3)  Papias  (A.  D.  130)  speaks  of  the  "sayings" 
(logia)  of  Matthew.  It  is  evident  that  Matthew,  who  has 
certain  discourses  of  Jesus  not  given  by  the  other  evangelists, 
used  this  "logia"  material.  (4)  Luke  made  use  of  a  docu- 
ment dealing  with  the  Perean  ministry  of  Jesus,  which  was 
not  possessed  by  the  other  evangelists. 

Beyond  these  outstanding  facts  there  are  many  minor  de- 
tails which  must  be  taken  into  account  in  the  consideration 
of  the  problem.  Much  prolonged,  minute,  and  earnest  study 
has  been  given  to  the  Synoptic  Problem  by  eminent  scholars, 
but  owing  to  its  complicated  nature  no  generally  accepted 
theory  has  yet  been  proposed. 

II.   The  Gospel  According  to  Matthew. 

Authorship.  The  book  does  not  name  its  author.  The 
title  "According  to  Matthew"  is  not  conclusive,  since  it  might 
mean  no  more  than  that  the  book  records  the  Gospels  as 
preached  or  taught  by  Matthew.  There  is  decisive  internal 
evidence  that  the  authorjs  a  Jew.  Of  the  four  Gospels,  this 
has  a  distinctively  Jewish  tone.  Note  the  genealogies  of  the 


l8o  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

first  chapter,  by  which  the  ancestry  of  Jesus  is  traced  through 
David  to  Abraham,  the  father  of  the  faithful.  The  genealog- 
ical list  is  divided  into  three  groups,  of  twice  seven  generations 
each,  revealing  the  Jewish  fondness  for  the  numbers  three 
and  seven.  There  are  other  marked  illustrations  in  the  book 
of  this  same  favoritism  for  these  numbers.  The  phrase,  "that 
it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  through  the  prophet," 
occurs  again  and  again.  The  writer  shows  an  intimate  fa- 
miliarity with  Jewish  customs,  laws,  history,  and  with  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures.  This  testimony  to  Jewish  author- 
ship is  so  abundant  as  to  lead  to  common  assent  on  this 
point.  Tradition  declares  that  this  Jewish  author  was  Mat- 
thew the  apostle.  This  is  concurred  in  by  practically  all 
students  of  the  New  Testament.  Interesting  corroboration 
is  found  in  the  detail  with  which  this  Gospel  deals  with  what- 
ever relates  to  the  former  office  of  Matthew.  Here  alone  is 
found  (17:24-27)  the  incident  concerning  the  payment  of 
the  temple  tax.  Again,  the  Roman  taxes  were  paid  in  denarii ; 
when  the  question  is  raised  concerning  the  lawfulness  of 
paying  tribute  to  Caesar,  Mark  and  Luke  report  Jesus  as  ask- 
ing for  a  penny,  but  Matthew  has,  "Show  me  the  tribute 
money"  (22:19).  Matthew  alone  reports  the  warnings  of 
Jesus  against  false  swearing,  and  His  teaching  concerning 
the  vain  distinctions  between  forms  of  oaths  (5:33-37;  23: 
16-22). 

The  Author.  Very  little  is  known  concerning  the  early 
or  later  life  of  Matthew.  Mark  speaks  of  him  as  "Levi,  the 
son  of  Alphasus."  From  the  fact  that  Mark  also  names 
James  the  Less  as  "the  son  of  Alphasus,"  it  has  been  asserted 
by  some  that  Matthew  and  James  the  Less  were  brothers, 
but  this  is  only  conjectural.  Mark  and  Luke  record  his  call 
from  the  tax  collector's  booth  to  discipleship,  and  also  that 
he  made  a  great  feast  in  Jesus'  honor,  at  which  many  pub- 
licans and  sinners  were  guests  (Mark  2:13-17;  Luke  5: 
27-29).  His  name  is  included  in  the  various  enumerations 
Of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  but  not  a  word  or  act  ascribed  to 
him  is  recorded  after  the  account  of  the  farewell  feast.  He 


THE  GOSPELS  181 

shows  his  own  modesty  of  disposition  by  omitting  all  ref- 
erences to  this  feast  in  his  own  house,  and  by  inserting  the 
words  "the  publican"  after  his  name  (10:13),  and  reveals 
a  fine  courtesy  by  naming  Thomas  before  himself  in  the  list 
of  apostles,  whereas  the  other  Gospels  give  the  names  in 
reverse  order.  That  a  man  with  gifts  such  as  to  fit  him  for 
the  authorship  of  the  first  Gospel  had  other  than  an  incon- 
spicuous part  in  the  councils  and  activities  of  the  apostolic 
band  can  not  be  doubted.  Our  lack  of  information  concern- 
ing him  but  emphasizes  the  paucity  of  the  records  of  the 
Apostolic  Age. 

Purpose.  The  book  consists  almost  wholly  of  reports  of 
the  deeds  and  discourses  of  Jesus.  The  writer  has  inserted 
no  argument  in  words  of  his  own,  and  has  almost  no  com- 
ment or  connecting  narrative.  Clearly  the  purpose  is  other 
than  to  present  a  biography  of  Jesus,  although  this  might 
be  inferred  as  the  aim  at  first  glance.  Careful  study  shows 
that  the  author  is  using  his  biographical  and  historical  ma' 
terial  in  support  of  an  unexpressed  thesis.  This  was  a  com- 
mon literary  procedure  of  the  time  which  finds  illustration 
elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament.  This  argumentative  pur- 
pose is  clearly,  briefly,  and  comprehensively  stated  by  Pro- 
fessor Burton :  "To  prove  that  Jesus  is  the  true  Messiah  of 
the  Jews ;  that  He  announced  and  founded  the  kingdom  of 
God,  expounding  its  true  nature  and  setting  forth  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament  religion;  that  He  came,  first  of 
all,  to  the  Jewish  nation;  that,  when  they  showed  signs  of 
a  disposition  not  to  receive  His  message,  He  warned  them 
that  the  consequence  of  such  rejection  would  be  that  the 
kingdom  would  be  taken  from  them;  that,  in  fact,  they  did 
in  the  face  of  all  this  warning  and  instruction  reject  Jesus 
and  put  Him  to  death;  and  that,  consequently,  the  kingdom 
ceased  to  be  in  any  distinctive  sense  Jewish,  and  in  place 
of  the  old  national  dispensation  there  was  created  by  Jesus 
Hjmself,  the  true  Jewish  Messiah,  a  kingdom  of  all  nations; 
thus  universal  Christianity,  freed  from  all  national  restric- 
tions or  peculiarly  Jewish  institutions,  becomes  the  true  sue- 


I82  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

cessor  of  the  Old  Testament  religion;  the  true  Jew  must 
be  a  follower  of  Jesus,  and,  in  consequence,  leave  Judaism 
behind."  (A  Short  Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  p.  16.) 

Contents  and  Characteristics.  Matthew  begins  his  Gospel 
with  a  genealogy  of  Jesus,  gives  an  account  of  the  birth  and 
infancy,  of  the  ministry  of  John,  and  of  the  baptism  and 
temptation  of  Jesus;  narrates  at  length  the  events  of  the 
Galilean  ministry,  devotes  a  brief  section  to  the  Perean  min- 
istry, and  in  conclusion  gives  with  considerable  fullness  the 
narrative  of  Passion  Week  and  the  Resurrection.  Certain 
sections  of  the  narrative  are  peculiar  to  the  first  Gospel. 
Ten  of  the  parables,  also,  are  found  only  in  Matthew,  as  four 
events  of  the  infancy,  numerous  incidents  of  the  Passion 
Week  and  of  the  Resurrection,  and  various  miscellaneous 
passages.  A  notable  phrase,  which  occurs  no  less  than  thirty- 
two  times,  found  nowhere  else  in  the  New  Testament,  is, 
"the  Kingdom  of  the  Heavens."  Matthew  is  also  the  only 
one  of  the  evangelists  to  speak  of  "the  Church." 

In  accord  with  his  argumentative  purpose,  Matthew  pays 
little  attention  to  chronology  in  arranging  his  narrative  of 
events.  He  is  interested  in  subjects  rather  than  in  order 
of  events. 

Matthew  presents  Jesus  in  His  kingly  aspects.  He  is  the 
Messiah,  the  promised  King,  who  founds  the  Kingdom  of 
the  Heavens,  and  in  the  future  age  shall  reign  triumphant. 

In  this  Gospel  we  see,  as  nowhere  else,  the  severity  and 
sternness  of  Jesus.  For  example,  the  seven  woes  pronounced 
against  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  (23 :  13-36)  are  recorded 
by  Matthew  alone. 

There  is  a  universal  aspect  to  the  Gospel  which  has 
been  often  overlooked.  In  the  genealogy  the  names  of  four 
women,  Gentiles,  are  introduced.  Magi,  Gentiles,  come  to 
do  homage  to  the  infant  King.  "Many  shall  come  from 
the  east  and  the  west,  and  shall  sit  down  with  Abraham, 
and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven"  (8:  11). 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  heathen  cities,  shall  be  visited  with  lighter 


THE  GOSPELS  183 

punishment  in  the  day  of  judgment  than  Chorazin,  Beth- 
saida,  and  Capernaum  (11:20-24).  Finally,  it  is  only  Mat- 
thew who  records  the  Great  Commission  to  the  disciples  to 
"Go  .  .  .  and  make  disciples  of  all  the  nations"  (28:  19). 

III.   The  Gospel  According  to  Mark. 

Authorship.  The  second  Gospel  nowhere  names  its 
author,  nor  so  much  as  gives  a  hint  by  which  he  may  be 
identified.  In  this  instance,  therefore,  it  only  remains  for 
us  to  rest  back  upon  the  tradition  of  the  early  Church.  Two 
names  are  associated  by  tradition  with  the  Gospel — Mark 
and  Peter.  It  is  commonly  held  that,  while  Mark  was  the 
author,  he  was  dependent  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the 
apostle  for  the  materials  of  his  narrative,  and  that  this 
Gospel  in  a  peculiar  sense  shows  the  influence  of  Peter. 
Various  explanations  have  been  offered  of  the  fact  that  the 
Gospel  makes  no  mention  of  Peter's  walking  on  the  water 
(Matt.  14:29),  nor  of  the  incident  concerning  the  tribute 
money,  in  which  Peter  figures  most  conspicuously  (Matt. 
17:24-27),  and  omits  both  Jesus'  statement  that  He  had 
prayed  especially  for  him  (Luke  22:32)  and  that  other 
striking  statement  addressed  to  Peter  as  the  rock  (Matt. 
16:18). 

Author.  Mark  is  frequently  named  in  the  narratives  of 
Acts  and  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  He  is  sometimes  called 
Mark  (Acts  15:29;  Col.  4:10;  2  Tim.  4:11),  sometimes 
John  Mark  (Acts  12:  12,  25),  and  at  other  times  John  (Acts 
13:5,  !3).  He  does  not  appear  in  the  pages  of  the  Gospel 
which  bears  his  name,  unless,  as  has  sometimes  been  con- 
jectured, he  is  the  unknown  young  man  who  followed  Jesus 
on  the  night  of  the  betrayal  (14:51,  52),  or  "the  man  bear- 
ing a  pitcher  of  water"  (14: 13).  He  was  a  Jew  by  birth,  a 
cousin  of  Barnabas  (Col.  4:  10),  and  son  of  a  certain  Mary, 
whose  house  was  a  meeting-place  of  the  disciples  (Acts 
ie: 12). 

Purpose.     That  the  author   of  this   Gospel   has   Gentiles 


!84  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

principally  in  mind  as  readers  appears  from  the  fact  that 
when  he  speaks  of  Jewish  customs  he  carefully  explains 
them,  and  that  when  he  uses  an  Aramaic  term  he  interprets 
it.  Moreover,  he  makes  very  slight  use  of  quotations  from 
the  Old  Testament,  scarcely  alludes  to  the  Jewish  law,  and 
does  not  dwell  at  all  on  the  relation  of  Jesus  to  the  Old 
Testament  religion  and  the  prophecies. 

The  author's  conception  of  Jesus  is  expressed  in  the 
opening  sentence  of  the  Gospel,  "The  beginning  of  the  Gos- 
pel of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God."  The  first  incident 
introduced  is  that  of  the  baptism,  in  which  a  Voice  from 
the  heavens  declares,  "Thou  art  My  beloved  Son."  These 
sentences  may  be  understood  to  present  the  writer's  thesis. 
He  does  not  proceed  to  establish  it  by  arguments  of  his 
own,  but  presents  a  concise,  lifelike  picture  of  the  person, 
the  character,  and  the  ministry  of  Jesus,  trusting  that  as 
by  His  life  and  works  Jesus  produced  the  conviction  in  His 
disciples  that  He  was  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  so  his 
portrayal  of  the  life  and  deeds  of  the  Master  will  produce 
a  like  faith  in  his  readers.  "The  prevailing  aspect  in  which 
the  second  Gospel  sets  forth  its  subject  is  that  of  'the  Son 
of  God  with  power'  moving  among  men  with  His  gift  of 
miracle,  and  making  the  things  of  nature  the  servants  of 
His  grace." — S almond. 

Contents  and  Character.  The  chief  interest  of  Mark  is 
with  the  public  ministry  of  Jesus.  He  has  no  mention  what- 
ever of  the  ancestry,  the  birth,  and  the  childhood.  Touching 
in  a  brief  paragraph  upon  the  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist, 
the  baptism  of  Jesus  and  His  temptation,  he  plunges  at  once 
into  a  narrative  of  the  Galilean  ministry,  the  account  of 
which  forms  the  major  portion  of  his  book.  He  omits  all 
but  one  of  the  greater  discourses  of  Jesus,  and  gives  small 
attention  to  the  parables.  He  concludes  his  Gospel  with  an 
account  of  the  events  of  Passion  Week  and  the  Resurrection. 

The  second  Gospel  has  the  charm  of  simplicity.  It  is 
singularly  free  from  rhetorical  embellishment.  It  is  a  direct, 


THE  GOSPELS  185 

simple,  straight-forward  narrative  of  events.  There  is  no 
waste  of  words.  Yet  it  is  peculiarly  vivid.  It  has  many  re- 
alistic touches,  expressions  as  to  time,  place,  .number,  man- 
ner, which  enable  the  reader  to  reproduce  the  scene  or  in- 
cident clearly  in  his  thought. 

The  narrative  is  terse  and  rapid.  Its  key- word  is 
"straightway,"  which  occurs  not  less  than  forty-two  times. 
There  is  no  impression  of  haste,  but  rather  of  continual 
action,  intensity,  a  ceaseless  energy. 

The  impression  made  is  of  an  orderly  sequence.  There 
is  no  arrangement  of  material  according  to  subject,  but 
rather  a  flowing  narrative  of  events,  apparently  much  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occurred. 

Mark  presents  Jesus  not  as  the  Teacher,  but  as  the  Doer. 
Concern  is  not  so  much  with  what  He  says  as  with  what 
He  does.  He  is  not  here  King  of  the  Jews,  but  the  Master 
of  all  men  and  the  Lord  of  nature.  He  makes  no  assertion 
of  right  or  of  power,  but  men  and  demons  bow  before  Him, 
and  all  nature  obeys  His  will.  He  is  Master  and  Lord  not 
because  of  supernatural  origin  or  claim,  but  because  of  what 
He  is  and  what  He  does.  The  Christ  of  Mark  moves  among 
men  on  the  common  plane  of  every-day  life,  a  man  of  his 
own  times ;  but  men  hear  from  Him  words  such  as  man 
never  spoke  before,  see  in  Him  a  love  and  benevolence,  a 
purity  and  virtue  never  known  before,  and  behold  exhibited 
by  Him  a  power  that  compels  the  verdict,  "Surely  this  man 
was  the  Son  of  God." 

IV.  The  Gospel  According  to  Luke. 

Authorship.  If  the  testimony  of  the  early  Church  be  given 
credence,  there  can  be  little  question  concerning  the  author- 
ship of  the  third  Gospel.  Until  the  end  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury there  was  no  questioning  of  the  unanimous  opinion  that 
Luke,  the  companion  of  Paul,  who  is  mentioned  in  Colossians 
^f:  14;  2  Timothy  4:  n,  and  Philemon  24,  is  the  author.  Har- 
nack  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  book,  being  addressed 


!86  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

to  a  certain  individual,  must  have  had  a  title,  and  asserts 
that  if  this  title  had  ever  been  changed  there  would  have 
been  allusions  made  to  the  change  by  early  writers.  Aside 
from  the  title  there  is  little  evidence  to  be  found  in  the  book 
itself  as  to  authorship.  The  third  Gospel,  and  Acts  have  a 
common  dedication  to  one  Theophilus.  Aside  from  this,  the 
two  works  have  so  much  in  common  that  there  is  general 
agreement  among  scholars  that  both  are  by  the  same  author. 
The  reasons  for  holding  that  Luke  wrote  the  Acts  (see 
P-  T9S)>  therefore  become  reasons  for  believing  him  to  be 
the  author  also  of  the  third  Gospel. 

Author.  Luke  is  mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment only  in  the  three  instances  named  above.  He  was  a 
Gentile,  born  probably  in  Antioch.  He  was  a  physician,  and 
this  indicates  that  he  belonged  to  the  middle  class,  and  that 
he  was  a  man  of  learning  and  culture,  a  fact  substantiated 
by  his  literary  style.  Renan  declared  that  this  Gospel  was 
the  most  beautiful  book  ever  written.  Luke  became  a  com- 
panion of  Paul  on  the  apostle's  missionary  journeyings,  and 
was  with  him  in  both  his  first  and  second  imprisonment  in 
Rome. 

Purpose.  In  his  preface  Luke  distinctly  indicates  his  pri- 
mary purpose  in  writing  his  Gospel.  It  is  that  Theophilus, 
to  whom  the  book  is  addressed,  may  have  an  accurate  and 
orderly  account  of  that  which  he  has  previously  received 
orally.  Theophilus  was  probably  a  Gentile  convert  who  de- 
sired to  know  more  than  was  customarily  taught  the  cate- 
chumens. Luke  undoubtedly  had  also  in  view  in  writing  a 
class  of  readers  of  whom  Theophilus  was  fairly  representa- 
tive. 

Contents  and  Characteristics.  We  have  in  Luke  an  ac- 
count of  the  birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus  peculiar  to  the  third 
Gospel ;  an  account  of  the  Galilean  ministry,  in  which  the 
author  has  evidently  used  Mark,  nearly  three-fourths  of 
Mark's  material  being  reproduced;  an  account  of  the  Perean 
ministry  found  only  in  this  Gospel,  and  a  narrative  of  the 


THE  GOSPELS  187 

events  of  Passion  Week  and  of  the  Resurrection,  which  has 
some  particulars  not  recorded  by  Mark  or  Matthew. 

Luke's  is  the  longest  of  the  four  Gospels ;  in  addition  to 
the  long  section  on  the  Perean  ministry  he  has  eleven  par- 
ables and  the  account  of  six  miracles,  not  given  elsewhere  in 
the  Xew  Testament. 

The  language  of  Luke  is  colored  by  his  medical  training. 
Hobart,  in  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Gospel,  prepared  a 
long  list  of  Greek  medical  terms  which  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  found  solely  or  chiefly  in  Luke.  It  is  also  true 
that  he  possesses  a  wider  general  vocabulary  than  any  Other 
New  Testament  writer,  and  uses  a  great  many  words  pe- 
culiar to  himself.  He  portrays  Jesus  as  the  great  physician, 
healer  of  the  bodies,  as  well  as  the  souls,  of  men.  At  Naza- 
reth, at  the  beginning  of  His  ministry,  Jesus  declares  that 
it  is  a  part  of  His  mission  "to  preach  .  .  .  recovering 
of  sight  to  the  blind,  and  to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are 
bruised"  (4:  18).  In  his  discourse  on  this  occasion  he  quotes 
the  proverb,  "Physician,  heal  thyself"  (4:23).  His  miracles 
are  largely  miracles  of  healing;  of  the  six  mentioned  above 
as  peculiar  to  the  third  Gospel,  five  are  miracles  of  physical 
healing. 

In  the  literature  of  the  early  Church  the  symbol  of  the 
ox  is  frequently  applied  to  the  Gospel  of  Luke.  This  sym- 
bolism is  fit  as  bringing  out  the  emphasis  of  Luke  upon 
the  patience,  the  gentleness,  and  the  long-suffering  of  Jesus. 
Luke  also  dwells  upon  the  sympathy  and  compassion  of 
Jesus  forjihe  outcast ;  he  only  has  given  to  us  the  parable 
of  the  prodigal  (15:  11-32),  the  story  of  the  good  Samaritan 
(10:25-37),  the  incident  cf  the  visit  to  Zaccheus,  the  pub- 
lican (19:  l-io),  the  anointing  of  Jesus  by  the  sinful  woman 
in  the  house  of  Simon  the  leper  (7:36-50),  the  assurance 
of  pardon  to  the  believing  thief  (23:39-43),  and  other  in- 
cidents which  have  brought  comfort  to  many  weak  and  err- 
ing yet  penitent  hearts  through  the  Christian  centuries. 

Women    are    singularly    prominent    in    the    narratives    of 


28b  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Luke.  How  prophetic  of  the  place  to  be  occupied  by  woman 
in  the  future  activities  of  the  Christian  Church !  And  what 
a  contrast  to  the  regard  in  which  woman  was  held  in  the 
civilization  of  the  day!  Only  in  the  Gospel  of  Luke  do  we 
meet  certain  women  who  early  became  believers  and  faithful 
disciples  of  Jesus  and  remained  loyal  to  him  through  the 
darkest  hours. 

The  third  Gospel  is  rich  in  social  teachings.  No  other 
Gospel  has  so  much  to  say  about  money;  no  other  points 
out  so  clearly  the  danger  and  the  abuses  of  riches;  no  other 
gives  so  fully  the  warnings  of  Jesus  to  the  rich,  and  His 
condemnation  of  injustice,  oppression,  and  the  misuse  of 
power.  Nowhere  else  is  His  sympathy  for  the  poor  and 
the  oppressed  so  fully  shown. 

Luke,  as  Mark,  makes  us  acquainted  with  the  man  Jesus. 
The  secrets  of  His  inner  life  are  made  known.  For  ex- 
ample, His  habit  of  prayer  is  revealed  to  us.  In  many  in- 
stances, not  elsewhere  recorded,  we  find  Jesus  engaging  in 
prayer  to  His  Father,  and  we  come  to  realize  His  great 
dependence  upon  prayer,  and  find  in  it  one  secret  of  His 
power.  For  Him  the  way  of  access  to  God  is  always  open; 
at  any  time  it  is  possible  for  Him  freely  to  talk  with  God, 
and  in  such  communion  to  find  the  answer  to  His  deepest 
needs. 

The  Christ  of  Luke  is  a  fellowman  living  a  man's  life, 
subject  to  man's  physical  infirmities,  tempted  like  as  other 
men  are,  filled  with  compassion  for  the  ills,  the  weaknesses, 
and  the  sorrows  of  all  mankind,  ever  busy  healing  the 
bodies  of  men,  and  speaking  to  them  the  good  tidings  of 
the  kingdom  of  God;  a  man,  yet  so  filled  with  the  Holy 
Spirit,  of  such  power,  of  such  nobility,  of  such  glory,  that 
those  who  entered  into  most  intimate  fellowship  with  Him 
felt  that  He  was  more  than  they,  and  from  calling  Him 
Master  and  Teacher  came  from  inward  compulsion  to  hail 
Him  as  Lord,  as  Christ  the  Chosen,  the  Son  of  God. 

Perhaps  the  most  significant  aspect  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke 


THE  GOSPELS  189 

remains  to  be  noted;  that  is,  the  universal  human  note 
which  it  has.  The  ancestry  of  Jesus  is  traced  back  not  to 
David  or  to  Abraham,  but  to  Adam,  "the  son  of  God,"  and 
thus  Jesus  is  identified  with  the  universal  human  family, 
which  is  itself  the  offspring  of  God.  Luke  only  records  that 
the  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist  re-echoed  the  faith  of  the 
prophet  that  "all  flesh  shall  see  the  salvation  of  God"  (3 : 
3-6)  ;  in  his  record  of  the  first  teaching  of  Jesus  he  shows 
that  Jesus  dwelt  upon  the  ministry  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  to 
Gentiles  (4:25-27),  and  he  closes  his  Gospel  by  quoting  a* 
among  the  last  words  of  the  Savior  the  statement  that  "re- 
pentance and  remission  of  sins  should  be  preached  in  His 
name  unto  all  the  nations"  (24:47).  Luke  and  Paul,  the 
apostolic  herald  of  a  world-wide  Gospel,  were  truly  of  kin- 
dred spirit. 

V.   The   Gospel   According  to  John. 

Authorship.  The  fourth  Gospel  was  uniformly  attributed 
to  the  Apostle  John  by  the  early  Church,  and  this  was 
practically  undisputed  until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. During  the  last  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  years, 
however,  this  Gospel  has  been  the  center  of  intense  contro- 
versy. The  marked  differences  between  the  synoptics  and 
the  fourth  Gospel  in  the  report  of  Jesus'  sayings  and  in  His 
discourses,  the  entirely  different  point  of  view  represented 
by  the  Gospel,  have  been  made  the  basis  of  contentions  that 
this  Gospel  can  not  have  proceeded  from  an  eyewitness  of 
the  ministry,  and  from  a  co-worker  with  the  other  three 
evangelists  who  must  have  been  acquainted  with  their  ac- 
counts. These  objections  have  prompted  the  most  scholarly, 
intense,  and  prolonged  study  of  the  Gospel,  and  research 
into  the  whole  subject,  which  in  its  turn  has  served  to  em- 
phasize with  new  force  the  facts  that  the  Gospel  gives  un- 
mistakable evidence  of  having  been  written  by  a  Jew  of 
Jesus'  own  time,  and  of  being  the  work  of  an  eye-witness 
of  the  events  which  are  narrated.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  it  was  written  later  than  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  that 


190  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  narrative  was  shaped  somewhat  to  accord  with  an  apolo- 
getic purpose,  that  more  of  the  writer's  personality  entered 
into  his  writing  than  in  the  case  of  the  other  evangelists, 
and  that  the  Gospel  bears  evidences  of  some  additions  (note 
especially  21 :  1-25)  by  a  later  hand.  These  conclusions  do 
not  interfere  at  all  with  the  life-long  faith  of  the  Church 
that  in  the  fourth  Gospel  we  have  an  account  of  the  per- 
sonality, the  life  events,  and  the  teaching  of  Jesus  by  that 
disciple,  who  by  his  intimacy  with  and  understanding  of 
the  Master  was  best  fitted  to  prepare  such  a  record  for 
future  years. 

Author.  John  never  mentions  himself  by  name  in  the 
course  of  his  whole  narrative — nor  does  he  name  his  par- 
ents or  his  brother.  From  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  however, 
we  learn  that  John  was  a  Galilean;  that  with  his  brother 
James  he  was  a  son  of  Zebedee,  that  the  mother's  name  was 
Salome,  that  the  family  lived  at  Bethsaida  near  Capernaum, 
that  the  sons  and  the  father  were  fishermen  on  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  and  that  they  had  boats,  nets,  hired  servants,  and 
a  house  of  their  own.  There  is  exceedingly  little  infor- 
mation concerning  the  later  life  of  John.  In  connection 
with  the  Council  of  Jerusalem,  Paul  speaks  of  him  as  one 
of  the  pillars  of  the  Jerusalem  Church.  There  is  a  wide- 
spread tradition  that  he  lived  in  his  old  age  at  Ephesus, 
revered  and  beloved  by  all. 

John  was  one  of  the  innermost  circle  of  Jesus'  disciples 
(Mark  10:2;  3:7;  Luke  6:14;  Acts  1:13).  He  was  in  the 
death-chamber  of  the  child  of  Jairus  (Luke  8:51),  he  was 
one  of  the  company  who  witnessed  the  transfiguration  (Matt. 
17:  i),  with  Peter  he  was  sent  by  Jesus  to  prepare  the 
Passover  (Luke  22:8),  with  Peter  and  James  he  witnessed 
the  agony  in  Gethsemane  (Mark  14:33),  and  to  him 
Jesus  on  the  cross  committed  the  care  of  His  mother  (John 
19:25-27).  This  intimacy,  together  with  his  alert  and 
eager  spirit,  his  profound  and  contemplative  mind,  his  tender 
and  delicate  sensibility,  his  capacity  for  friendship,  for 


THE  GOSPELS  191 

rove,  and  for  intense  devotion  enabled  him  to  understand 
Jesus  better  than  any  of  his  fellows.  Says  Augustine:  "For 
not  without  reason  is  it  mentioned  in  his  own  Gospel  that 
at  the  feast  he  reclined  upon  the  bosom  of  his  Lord.  From 
that  bosom  he  had  in  secrecy  drunk  in  the  stream,  but  what 
he  drank  in  secret  he  poured  forth  openly." 

John  has  rightfully  been  known  throughout  the  history 
of  the  Church  as  the  apostle  of  love,  but  this  has  sometimes 
been  misinterpreted.  He  was  farthest  possible  removed  from 
the  soft  and  effeminate  character  pictured  under  his  name  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  Gospels  show  us  a  man  of  courage,  of 
moral  strength,  with  capacity  for  heroic  deeds.  John  and 
James  were  called  by  Jesus,  Boanerges,  sons  of  thunder,  be- 
cause of  their  inner  fire  and  the  prophetic  energy  of  their 
natures.  John  was  ready  of  word,  quick  in  action,  sometimes 
vehement  In  speech.  He  speaks  forth  as  no  other  evangelist 
the  wrath  of  God  against  sin  and  evildoing  (3:18,  36; 
5:29),  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  showed  his  capacity 
for  fiery  indignation  (Luke  9:49;  9:51-55).  Altogether 
he  was  a  rare  and  unusual  figure,  of  brilliant  gifts  and  at- 
tractive personality,  a  man  of  intense  zeal  and  intellectual 
power,  who  magnified  the  gospel  by  his  character  as  by 
his  deeds,  without  whom  the  apostolic  company  would  have 
been  sadly  incomplete,  and  well-deserving  of  that  highest 
title — "John  the  beloved." 

Purpose.  John  states  the  purpose  of  his  writing  in  20:  31. 
It  is  in  order  that  men  may  be  strengthened  in  their  belief 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that,  thus 
believing,  they  may  continue  to  have  life  through  Him. 

Contents  and  Characteristics.  The  omissions  of  John's 
Gospel  are  many  and  striking.  He  has  no  account  of  the 
miraculous  birth  or  the  infancy  of  Jesus,  or  of  His  family, 
His  genealogy,  or  of  His  youth.  He  only  touches  on  the 
ministry  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  omits  all  mention  of  the 
baptism  of  Jesus,  the  temptation,  the  transfiguration,  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  agony  in  the  garden,  and 


,92  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  ascension.  His  Gospel  has  nothing  about  demons,  lepers, 
or  publicans.  Properly  speaking,  it  has  no  parables  and 
no  eschatology.  The  historical  narrative  is  begun  with  an 
account  of  the  call  of  the  first  disciples;  early  events  in 
Judea  are  described;  the  Galilean  ministry  is  just  touched 
upon,  visits  to  Jerusalem  being  given  chief  attention;  a  few 
events  of  the  Perean  ministry  are  narrated;  some  events 
of  Passion  Week  are  described  fully,  the  occurrences  of  the 
day  of  crucifixion  being  given  with  especial  fullness,  and 
the  Gospel  is  brought  to  a  close  by  an  account  of  the  res- 
urrection and  certain  of  the  resurrection  appearances.  Much 
of  the  Gospel  is  taken  up  by  conversations  and  discourses 
of  Jesus ;  of  those  not  found  elsewhere  there  are :  the  con- 
versation of  Nicodemus  (3:1-21),  the  conversation  with 
the  woman  of  Samaria  (4 : 4-26) ,  the  discourse  at  the  heaU 
ing  of  the  infirm  man  at  the  Pool  of  Bethesda  (5:19-47), 
discourse  on  the  bread  of  life  (6:22-71),  discourse  on  the 
light  of  the  world  (8:12-30),  discourse  on  spiritual  freedom 
(8:31-51),  discourse  on  the  good  shepherd  (10:1-21),  and 
the  farewell  discourse  to  His  disciples  (14:1 — 16:33).  The 
intercessory  prayer  of  Jesus  is  also  found  only  in  John 
(17:  1-26).  The  Gospel  records  only  eight  miracles,  of  which 
six  are  not  elsewhere  given. 

A  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  fourth  Gospel  is 
the  writer's  comment  or  interpretation  of  Jesus'  words.  This 
is  often  so  interwoven  with  his  narrative  that  it  is  difficult 
to  discern  where  direct  quotation  ends  and  his  own  state- 
ment begins.  Due  appreciation  of  this  characteristic  and 
attention  to  it  is  important  to  the  study  and  understanding 
of  the  Gospel.  Some  examples  of  this  are:  2:21;  2:23-25; 
6 :  6,  64 ;  7 :  39. 

John's  Gospel  emphasizes  the  Fatherhood  of  God.  Jesus 
here  speaks  of  God  and  addresses  God  as  Father.  Instances 
are:  4:23;  5:6,  19,  26;  10:17;  17:24,  26.  In  accord  with 
this  the  Gospel  dwells  upon  the  love  of  God  (3:  17;  14:21, 
23;  16:27). 

The  symbol  of  the  Fourth   Gospel  in  the  literature  of 


THE  GOSPELS  193 

the  early  Church  was  the  flying  eagle.  John  rises  to  loftier 
heights  than  any  other  Gospel  writer.  His  Gospel  has  a 
sublimity,  a  reach,  a  spirituality  that  none  other  has.  Said 
Augustine.  "While  the  three  evangelists  remained  below  with 
the  man  Christ  Jesus,  and  speak  but  little  about  His  God- 
head, John,  as  though  impatient  of  treading  the  earth,  rises 
from  the  very  first  word  of  his  Gospel  not  only  above  the 
birds,  the  air,  and  the  sky,  but  above  angels  and  celesfial 
powers,  into  the  very  presence  of  Him  by  whom  all  things 
were  made."  In  this  Gospel  we  are  constantly  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Christ  of  God.  Jesus  walks  among  men  as  a 
man,  speaks  with  a  man's  voice,  feels  weariness  and  pain, 
is  truly  a  human  being;  but  John  will  not  for  a  moment 
allow  us  to  forget  that  we  are  in  the  presence  of  the  Son 
of  God, 

The  Gospel  of  John  speaks  to  the  deep  reaches  of  the 
human  heart.  It  has  a  charm  and  a  power  of  attraction 
that  is  all  its  own.  It  is  the  Gospel  of  mystics.  It  has 
cheered  the  lonely,  comforted  the  sorrowing,  encouraged  the 
despairing,  strengthened  the  dying,  through  all  the  Christian 
centuries.  It  speaks  a  language  "to  which  no  parallel  what- 
ever is  to  be  found  in  the  whole  compass  of  literature."  It 
makes  men  sure  of  God.  Error  and  sin  and  unbelief  can 
not  stand  in  its  light.  It  sings  the  Orphean  song  of  heavenly 
life  and  love,  in  comparison  with  which  all  siren  music  of 
evil  is  but  dismal  discord. 

The  importance  of  John's  Gospel  can  hardly  be  overesti- 
mated. In  it  we  have  a  view  of  Jesus  which  we  get  no- 
where else.  Many  hold  that  it  presents  the  highest  and 
truest  revelation  of  Jesus  ever  given  to  His  followers.  To 
those  who  bring  to  it  an  unprejudiced  mind  and  a  receptive' 
heart  it  bears  a  wonderful  message  of  things  divine,  a  mes- 
sage which  can  not  be  ignored.  "If  the  Son  .of  God  did 
say  and  do  things  recorded  in  this  document,  then  everything 
in  the  universe,  every  fact  in  the  -history  of  the  world,  the 
conclusions  of  all  philosophy,  the  meaning  of  all  scientific 

13 


r94  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

discovery,  the  future  of  the  world,  and  the  goal  of  humanity 
must  be  affected  by  its  disclosures." — Reynolds. 

Lesson  Outline: 

How  the  New  Testament"  came  to  be. 
The  language  of  the  New  Testament. 
The  Four  Gospels;  the  word  "Gospel;"  resemblances  and 

differenctes ;  the  synoptic  problem. 
The  Gospel  according  to  Matthew. 
The  Gospel  according  to  Mark. 
The  Gospel  according  to  Luke. 
The  Gospel  according  to  John. 


Books  for  Reference: 

Burton,  "A  Short  Introduction  to  the  Gospels." 
Dods,  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament." 
Farrar,  "Messages  of  the  Books." 
Hazzard-Fowler,  "The  Books  of  the  Bible." 
Hastings,  "One  Volume  Dictionary  of  the  Bible."     See  ar- 
ticles on  the  various  subjects. 

Commentaries :  Matthew,  Allen,  "International  Critical  Com- 
mentary on  Matthew ;"  Mark,  Swete,  "The  Gospel  Ac- 
cording to  St.  Mark ;"  Luke,  Plummer,  "International 
Critical  Commentary  on  Luke ;"  John,  Westcott,  "St. 
John's  Gospel,"  in  the  Bible  Commentary  Series. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  literary   forms  of  the  New  Testament  as  compared 

with  the  Old  Testament. 

2.  The  language  of  the  New  Testament. 

3.  The  resemblances  and  differences  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels 

in  detail. 

4.  The  teaching  of  Jesus  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels. 

5.  The  parables  of  Jesus. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  How  do  we  come  to  have  a  New  Testament? 

2.  How  account  for  the  similarities  between  the  first  three 

Gospels  ? 

3.  Which  Gospel  gives  the  most  complete  account  of  the  life 

of  Jesus? 

4.  What  evidences  are  to  be  found  in  John  of  the  report  of 

an  eye-witness? 

5.  Compare    Jesus'    teachings    concerning    Himself    in    the 

Synoptic  Gospels  and  in  John. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  ACTS  AND  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF 
CHRISTIANITY 

I.   The  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

The  Book  of  Acts  stands  alone  in  the  New  Testament 
as  a  history  of  the  Early  Christian  Church.  Moreover,  it 
is  the  one  book  of  the  New  Testament  purely  historical  in 
character. 

Authorship.     Certain  parts  of  the  book,  called  technically 
the  "we  sections,"  are  in  the  first  person  and  are  clearly  the 
language  of  an  eye-witness.    These  sections  must,  therefore, 
have  been  written  by  a  companion  of  Paul.    There  is  strong 
reason  to  hold  on  the  basis  of  similarity  of  language  and 
style  that  the  entire  book  is  from  one  hand.     The  only  com- 
panion of  Paul  of  whom  we  know,  not  excluded  by  the  evi- 
dence of  the  apostle's  letters,  is  Luke.    The  tradition  of  the! 
Church  from  an  early  period  agrees  in  assigning  the  author-/ 
ship  to  Luke,  "the  beloved  physician." 

Purpose.  The  book  is  addressed  to  an  individual,  The- 
ophilus,  as  a  continuation  of  a  former  treatise  (the  third 
Gospel),  and  has  for  its  aim  to  chronicle  the  growth  and 
development  of  the  movement  inaugurated  by  Jesus  in  sub- 
stantiation of  His  promise  of  power  to  His  disciples  and  in 
obedience  to  His  direction  to  them  that  they  should  be  His 
witnesses  in  Jerusalem,  in  Judea,  in  Samaria,  and  to  the  ut- 
termost parts  of  the  earth. 

Content  and  Character.  Acts  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  first  part,  chapters  i  to  12,  is  a  narrative  of  the  growth 
of  the  Church  in  Jerusalem  and  from  Jerusalem  as  a  center. 

I9S 


I96  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Peter  is  the  central  figure,  and  the  general  theme  is  the  tri- 
umphant progress  of  the  gospel  in  spite  of  all  opposition  and 
persecution.  The  second  part,  chapters  12  to  28,  relates  the 
history  of  the  extension  of  the  Church  throughout  the  em- 
pire. Antioch  is  the  center,  and  the  narrative  deals  almost 
altogether  with  the  labors  of  Paul.  We  will  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  content  of  this  second  part  in  our  later 
study  of  the  Life  of  Paul  (Chapters  XVIII  and  XIX).  An 
outline  of  the  first  half  of  the  book  is  as  follows: 

CONTENTS  OF  PART  I. 

Introduction   i  :  i — 2 :  13 

Prefatory  statement    i  :  i-S 

The  Ascension  of  the  Lord i  :  5"11 

Enumeration  of  the  Apostles i  :  12-14 

Choice  of  Matthias  as  Apostle i  :  15-26 

The  Gift  of  the  Spirit  2  :  1-12 

1.  The  Growth  of  the  Church  in  Jerusalem. .  .2  :  14 — 6  :  7 

Sermon  of   Peter  on   the   Day    of    Pentecost ; 

three  thousand  added  to  the  Church.  .  .2:  14-41 
Summary  statement  concerning  progress  and 

state  cf  the  Church   2  :  42-47 

The  lame  man  healed 3  :  i-io 

Sermon  of  Peter  in   Solomon's  porch. ...  .3  :  11-26 

First  persecution   4  :  1-31 

Summary  statement  concerning  progress  and 

state  of  the  Church ;  hypocrites  punished 

by  death 4 :  32 — 5  :  16 

Second  stage  of  persecution 5  :  17-42 

Summary  statement  concerning  progress  and 

state  of  the  Church;  deacons  appointed. .  .6 -.1-7 
Third  stage  of  persecution ;   Stephen  stoned, 

6 :  8—8 :  3 

2.  Extension  of  the  gospel  from  Jerusalem.  .8  :  4 — 12  :  24 

Philip's  ministry  in  Samaria   8  :  4-13 

Ministry  of  Peter  and  John  in  Samaria 8 :  14-25 

Philip  extends  his  work;  the  Ethiopian  con- 
verted      8 :  26-40 

The  conversion  of  Saul  9  :  1-30 

Summary  statement  concerning  progress  and 

state  of  the  Church   9:31 

Peter    extends    his    ministry    to    Lydda    and 

Joppa    9  :  32 — 10  :  48 

Peter's  defense  of  his  ministry  to  the  Gen- 
tiles     1 1  :  1-18 

Beginning  of  the  Gospel  in  Antioch n  :  19-30 


BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  197 

Fourth  stage  of  persecution  ;  Herod,  the  king, 
kills  James  and  imprisons  Peter :  Peter 
delivered  by  the  Lord,  and  Herod  smit- 
ten   12 :  1-2$ 

Summary  statement  concerning  the  triumph- 
ant progress  of  the  Word 12  :  24 

The  book  is  not  at  all  intended  to  be  a  complete  account 
of  the  labors  of  the  apostles  or  of  the  history  of  the  Early 
Church.  The  author  limits  himself  by  his  specific  purpose 
and  is  satisfied  to  establish  his  contention  by  a  narrative  of 
parts  of  the  personal  history  and  a  part  of  the  activity  of 
some  of  the  apostles.  It  is  an  invaluable  part  of  the  New 
Testament;  it  alone  gives  us  an  account  of  the  gift  of  the 
Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  of  the  early  progress  and 
vicissitudes  of  the  gospel  in  Jerusalem  and  among  the  Jewish 
people,  of  the  earliest  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  of  the 
first  martyrs  of  the  faith,  of  the  first  Gentile  convert,  and 
of  the  beginnings  of  ecclesiastical  organization.  Considered 
as  a  history  of  the  period,  it  is  as  remarkable  for  what  it: 
omits  as  for  what  it  narrates.  It  omits  all  account  of  the 
ministry  of  a  number  of  the  apostles,  of  the  later  ministry 
of  Peter,  and  of  the  death  of  Paul.  We  know  from  state- 
ments in  Paul's  letters  that  there  are  many  important  events 
of  his  missionary  labors  that  are  unmentioned  in  the  Acts. 

Investigations  of  recent  years  have  confirmed  the  historical 
accuracy  of  Acts  in  a  remarkable  way.  It  has  been  proven, 
that  in  minute  details  of  geographical  description,  by  the  ex- 
pert testing  of  his  statements,  that  Luke  was  careful  and 
exact,  and  that  he  possessed  and  used  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  political  conditions.  These  investigations  and  resulting 
conclusions  have  strengthened  confidence  in  the  account  which 
he  gives  of  religious  events  and  the  early  progress  of  the 
Church. 

II.    The  Apostolic  Church. 

The  Founding  of  the  Church.  Jesus  did  not  Himself  form 
ffn  organization.  He  drew  disciples  about  Him,  centered  their 
faith  in  Him  as  a  religious  teacher,  as  the  promised  Messiah 


I98  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

and  the  Son  of  God,  committed  to  them  His  gospel,  and  gave 
them  their  commission  of  world  evangelization;  but  He 
formed  no  separate  or  distinct  organization.  He  set  apart 
by  His  own  appointment  twelve  of  their  number  as  apostles 
to  be  in  a  special  sense  His  representatives  and  the  leaders 
of  the  new  movement ;  but  neither  the  apostles  nor  the  larger 
body  of  disciples  fully  realized  either  their  call  or  their  mis- 
sion. The  crucifixion  of  the  Master  came  as  a  bitter  disap- 
pointment to  their  hopes  and  resulted  in  their  complete  dis- 
couragement and  confusion.  It  was  the  resurrection  more 
than  anything  else  which  clarified  their  conceptions  of  Jesus 
and  the  kingdom,  begat  in  them  a  realization  of  their  mission, 
unified  them  as  a  company  of  believers,  and  gave  them  their 
word  of  testimony  to  the  world.  Christianity  as  an  historical 
movement  had  its  beginning  when  the  disciples  of  Jesus  be- 
came convinced  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
Christian  Church  was  born  at  the  empty  tomb  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth.  The  picture  which  meets  us  in  the  first  chapters 
of  Acts  is  that  of  a  Church,  and  it  is  new ;  we  do  not  find  it 
anywhere  in  the  Gospels.  We  have  no  account  of  any  formal 
organization.  There  was  no  stated  meeting  with  the  passage 
of  resolutions,  the  adoption  of  a  constitution,  and  the  election 
of  officers.  The  organization  was  effected  in  the  councils  of 
heaven,  not  of  earth ;  the  resurrection  was  the  means  by  which 
it  became  known  and  understood  by  the  disciples.  At  first 
it  was  a  waiting  Church ;  along  with  the  new  consciousness 
of  being  there  went  a  sense  of  unreadiness.  The  fitting  for 
its  world  work  came  in  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost. 

Early  History  of  the  Church  in  Jerusalem.  The  first  meet- 
ings of  the  infant  Church  were  for  prayer  (1:14).  At  one 
of  these  meetings  Peter  proposed  the  selection  of  one  to  take 
the  place  of  Judas  in  the  apostolate.  After  prayer  Matthias 
was  selected  by  lot  (i :  15-26).  The  gift  of  the  Spirit  appears 
to  have  taken  place  in  the  early  morning  of  the  day  of  Pente- 
cost  Immediately  thereafter  Peter  preached  to  the  multitude 


BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  199 

and  on  that  day  three  thousand  received  baptism  and  joined 
themselves  to  the  disciples.  From  that  time  on  the  growth 
of  the  Church  was  continuous  (2:  1-47).  Peter  and  John  are 
associated  as  the  leaders  of  the  work,  with  Peter  as  chief 
spokesman.  Peter  heals  the  lame  man  at  the  door  of  the 
temple,  preaches  to  the  multitude  who  gather  about,  and  on 
the  following  day  defends  the  deed  before  the  Jewish  rulers 
(3:  1-26;  4:5-12).  In  the  first  stages  of  persecution  the  Sad- 
ducees  appear  as  the  active  agents;  they  were  offended  at  the 
proclamation  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  and  made  a  pre- 
tended zeal  for  public  order  a  cloak  for  this  prejudice.  The 
apostles  were,  in  a  first  instance,  given  a  public  hearing,  com- 
manded to  cease  preaching  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  threatened, 
and  dismissed;  on  a  second  occasion  they  were  only  saved 
from  severe  punishment  by  the  plea  of  Gamaliel  (4:1-21; 
5: 17-42).  But  persecution  only  deepened  their  sense  of  obli- 
gation to  declare  their  message  (4:18-31;  5:27-32,  41,  42). 

Luke  records  only  occasional  incidents  of  special  signifi- 
cance in  relation  to  his  theme  and  passes  over  long  intervals 
of  intervening  time  by  brief  summary  statements,  sometimes, 
however,  incorporating  in  these  accounts  of  noteworthy 
events;  such,  for  example,  as  the  stern  rebuke  of  hypocrisy 
by  the  death  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira  (5:1-16),  and  the 
appointment  of  the  Seven  (6:1-6). 

Stephen  appears  to  have  possessed  and  preached  a  con- 
ception of  the  universal  aspect  of  Christianity;  as  soon  as 
this  was  declared,  the  Pharisees,  zealous  as  they  were  for  the 
Law,  were  aroused  and  joined  with  the  Sadducees  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Christians;  this  new  stage  of  persecution  result- 
ing in  the  killing  of  Stephen  and  scattering  the  disciples 
throughout  Judea  and  Samaria  (6:8 — 8:3). 

Growth  of  the  Church  under  Persecution.  Thus  early  in 
the  history  of  the  Church  was  it  demonstrated  that  "the  blood 
of  the  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church."  The  spirit  of  the 
persecuted  Christians  could  not  be  daunted,  and  everywhere 
they  went  they  preached  the  Good  News  of  the  kingdom,  with 


800 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


the  result  that  groups  of  believers  came  to  exist  in  many 
different  places  throughout  Judea,  Samaria,  Phoenicia,  even 
to  Cyprus  and  Antioch.  Luke's  narrative  describes  only  a  few 
signal  demonstrations  of  the  gospel's  power  in  the  ministry 
of  two  of  the  leaders,  Peter  and  Philip.  The  success  of  Philip 
in  Samaria  appears  to  have  been  immediate  and  far-reaching 
(8:4-25).  The  narrative  of  the  meeting  of  Philip  with  the 
Ethiopian  is  of  especial  significance  as  showing  how  the  gos- 
pel was  carried  into  foreign  parts  by  the  Jewish  proselytes 
who  came  to  Jerusalem  to  worship  (8:26-40). 

Extension  of  the  Gospel  to  Gentiles.  The  ministry  of 
Peter  at  Csesarea  precipitated  the  question,  on  the  one  hand, 
of  the  relation  of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles,  and,  on  the  other, 
the  relation  of  the  new  faith  to  Judaism.  Here  were  ques- 
tions of  the  largest  importance,  questions  which  involved  the 
•whole  future  of  the  Church,  which  had  not  before  apparently 
been  suggested  to  the  leaders  of  the  new  movement.  It  is 
evident  that  Peter's  experience  as  a  follower  of  Jesus  Christ 
had  with  him  tended  to  minify  the  Levitical  distinctions  of 
which  loyal  Jews  made  so  much,  for  at  Joppa  he  lodged  with 
a  Jew  who  was  a  tanner,  and  therefore,  according  to  Levitical 
teaching,  unclean.  Perhaps  his  intercourse  with  Simon 
brought  the  whole  subject  to  his  consideration;  at  any  rate 
there  came  to  him  a  vision,  the  meaning  of  which  he  under- 
stood to  be  that  God  wished  him  to  disregard  these  distinc- 
tions which  previously  he  had  held  as  a  part  of  sacred  law.. 
This  vision  prepared  him  to  receive  hospitably  the  urgent 
•call  of  Cornelius,  a  devout  Gentile.  In  the  house  of  Cor- 
nelius he  justified  his  presence  by  the  announcement  of  what 
was  from  the  standpoint  of  Judaism  a  revolutionary  doctrine : 
""Unto  me  hath  God  showed  that  I  should  not  call  any  man 
common  or  unclean."  The  approval  of  God  upon  his  course 
was  demonstrated  by  what  was  almost  a  complete  repetition 
of  the  occurrences  of  Pentecost:  "The  Holy  Spirit  fell  on 
•all  them  that  heard  the  Word,"  and  the  Gentiles  spake  "with 
tongues"  and  magnified  God.  This  was  a  cause  of  amazement 


BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  201 

to  the  Jewish  companions  of  Peter.  No  doubt  some  had  in- 
ward misgivings ;  but  under  the  circumstances,  who  could 
have  dared  to  accept  the  challenge  of  Peter,  "Can  any  man 
forbid  the  water,  that  these  should  not  be  baptized,  who  have 
received  the  Holy  Spirit  as  well  as  we?"  It  was  inevitable 
that  the  report  of  Peter's  course  should  provoke  controversy 
in  Jerusalem.  Doubtless  many  did  not  at  first  understand 
the  reason  for  Peter's  disregard  of  Jewish  law  and  custom. 
When  he  had  fully  related  the  circumstances,  the  objectors 
were — for  the  time  being,  at  least — silenced.  Some  rejoiced, 
being  convinced  that  "to  the  Gentiles  also  hath  God  granted 
repentance  unto  life"  (11:1-18).  But  Jewish  prejudice  was 
exceedingly  strong  and  deep,  and  this  question  of  the  call 
of  the  Gentiles  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  should 
be  admitted  to  the  Church  was  one  upon  which  there  was 
to  be  prolonged  and  serious  controversy. 

Antioch  early  became  a  prominent  center  of  gospel  activity. 
A  large  number  of  Gentiles  accepted  the  faith.  When  word 
of  the  ingathering  reached  Jerusalem,  Barnabas  was  sent  forth 
to  minister  to  the  new  converts.  He  in  turn  sought  out  Saul, 
and  together  these  two  gave  themselves  for  a  year  to  the 
instruction  and  nurture  of  the  young  Gentile  Church.  This 
Church  has  especial  interest  for  us,  not  only  because  it  was 
the  first  well-known  Gentile  Church,  but  also  because  here 
followers  of  the  Christ  first  came  to  be  called  Christians 
(n :  19-26). 

Organisation  and  Development  of  the  Church.  The  Apos- 
tolic Church,  as  we  have  seen,  began  as  a  society  within  the 
Jewish  Church.  The  first  Christians  remained  loyal  to  Juda- 
ism and  its  institutions,  but  they  held  that,  the  Messiah  hav- 
ing come,  obedience  to  the  law  was  no  longer  sufficient  to 
salvation.  He  who  would  be  saved  must  now  possess  faith 
in  Christ,  repent  of  his  sins,  and  accept  baptism.  At  first  the 
disciples  continued  their  attendance  upon  the  temple  services 
and  ritual,  but  they  also  had  their  own  meetings.  They  came 
together  in  an  upper  room  in  Jerusalem,  and  later,  as  their 


202 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 


numbers  increased,  met  in  small  congregations  at  the  homes 
of  certain  of  the  members.  For  a  considerable  period  of 
time  they  had  no  other  meeting-places.  Gradually  their  in- 
terest in  the  Jewish  ordinances  declined,  and  their  observance 
of  them  ceased.  The  destruction  of  the  temple  in  A.  D.  70 
undoubtedly  operated  to  develop  Christianity  among  the  Jews 
as  a  distinct  form  of  worship.  But  it  was  among  Gentiles, 
not  Jews,  that  Christianity  was  to  spread  most  rapidly,  and 
even  by  the  close  of  the  apostolic  period  the  Church  was 
predominantly  Gentile. 

At  the  beginning  the  believers  met  daily  for  worship.  As 
their  numbers  multiplied  and  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life  de- 
manded more  attention,  the  meetings  for  prayer,  praise,  and 
preaching  became  less  frequent.  Soon  the  first  day  of  the 
week  came  into  prominence  a  entitled  to  special  reverence 
and  was  set  apart  for  rest  and  worship  as  the  Lord's  day,  be- 
cause on  this  day  their  Lord  had  risen  from  the  dead  (see 
I  Cor.  16:2;  Acts  20:7;  Rev.  1:10).  Preaching  was  mag- 
nified as  a  means  of  edification  in  the  meetings  and  as  a 
missionary  agency,  but  -t  is  probable  that  teaching  was  placed 
first  in  importance.  Jewish  converts  required  careful  instruc- 
tion, and  the  need  was  much  greater  in  the  case  of  Gentiles 
who  embraced  the  faith,  as  many  of  them  knew  nothing  of 
the  Scriptures  and  came  over  to  Christianity  from  idolatry. 

The  form  of  organization  in  the  Church  was  a  gradual 
development.  First  in  authority  in  the  Church  were  the 
apostles,  who  had  seen  the  Lord  and  had  received  their  com- 
mission direct  from  Him.  The  entire  supervision  of  the 
Church  was  at  first  in  their  hands.  The  earliest  departure 
from  this  was  in  the  appointment  of  "the  Seven,"  to  whom 
were  committed  definite  duties  of  administration  (5:3).  We 
hear  also  of  prophets  (Acts  11:27;  13:1;  I  Cor.  12:28; 
Eph.  4:11),  teachers  (Acts  13:1;  i  Cor.  12:28),  elders  or 
presbyters  (Acts  11:30;  15:6;  21:18),  bishops  (Acts  20:28; 
Phil,  i :  i ;  i  Tim.  3:1),  and  deacons  (Rom.  16: 1 ;  Phil.  I :  i). 
Paul's  letters  seem  to  reflect  various  stages  of  organization, 


BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY  203 

and  it  is  doubtful  if  from  the  data  given  we  can  determine 
either  the  exact  status  of  the  various  officers  or  the  standard 
of  organization  aimed  at  by  the  apostles. 

The  first  persecution  of  the  Church  was  by  the  Jewish 
authorities.  The  attitude  of  the  Roman  State  was  in  general 
that  of  indifference  and  non-interference.  In  some  instances 
the  government  protected  the  Church  leaders  and  openly  be- 
friended them  (Acts  17:9;  19:33-41;  23:17-24).  Christians 
were,  therefore,  friendly  to  the  Roman  power  and  regarded 
it  as  their  protector.  Toward  the  close  of  the  apostolic  pe- 
riod the  spread  of  Christianity  brought  it  more  prominently 
to  the  notice  of  the  emperor.  The  Roman  persecutions  were 
begun  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  the  infamous.  In  the  latest  writ- 
ing of  the  New  Testament  this  is  reflected  in  the  changed 
attitude  of  the  writers.  The  emperor  comes  to  be  regarded 
as  the  representative  of  the  powers  of  evil,  and  is  referred 
to  in  such  terms  as  anti-Christ. 


Lesson  Outline: 

The  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

The  Apostolic  Church :  Founding  of  the  Church ;  early  his- 
tory in  Jerusalem  ;  growth  under  persecution  ;  extension 
of  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles ;  organization  and  develop- 
ment of  the. Church, 


Books  for  Reference: 

Farrar,  "Messages  of  the  Books." 
Bartlet,  "The  Apostolic  Age." 
Dods,  "Introduction  to  the  New  Testament." 
Hastings,  "One  Volume  Dictionary  of  the  Bible." 
Commentary :    Lumby,   "The  Acts  of  the   Apostles,"   in  the 
Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Content  of  the  apostolic  message. 

2.  The  Jewish  and  Gentile  conceptions  of  Christianity  con- 

trasted. 

3.  The  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Book  of  Acts. 

4.  The  form  of  organization  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 

5.  The  history  of  Judaistic  Christianity. 


204  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  In   what  ways   did    Christianity,   in   the  beginning,   differ 

from  Judaism  as  a  religion? 

2.  The    importance    of    the    Resurrection    to    the    Apostolic 

Church. 

3.  The  leadership  of  Peter  among  the  apostles. 

4.  The  place  of  persecution  in  the  growth  of  Christianity. 

5.  Why  did  Christianity  spread  more  rapidly  among  the  Gea- 

tiles  than  among  the  Jews? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL 

Next  to  the  Lord  Jesus,  Christianity  owes  more  to  the 
Apostle  Paul  than  to  any  other  one  person.  He  it  was  who 
fashioned  the  Christian  religion  into  the  principal  doctrinal 
forms  in  which  it  was  held  by  the  Church  for  centuries,  who 
secured  for  it  its  first  wide  hearing  before  the  Gentiles,  who 
planted  its  churches  in  a  score  of  the  strategic  centers  of  the 
great  Roman  Empire,  and  who  presented  to  the  world  an 
example  of  such  boundless  energy,  devotion,  courage,  and 
self-sacrifice  as  to  inspire  admiration  in  all  and  to  beget  those 
same  qualities  in  thousands  of  Christian  believers. 

I.    Birth  and  Childhood. 

Paul,  whose  early  name  was  Saul,  was  born  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  first  decade  of  the  Christian  era  in  Tarsus,  a  large 
and  commercially  important  city  of  Cilicia,  in  Asia  Minor. 
By  birth  he  was  a  Hebrew  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  Phari- 
see, and  a  Roman  citizen.  Beyond  this  very  little  is  known 
of  his  parents.  Paul  himself  never  directly  refers  to  them 
m  his  writings.  From  the  educational  advantages  given  the 
son  it  is  inferred  that  they  were  well-to-do  people.  Of  other 
children  there  were  at  least  one;  Paul's  sister  is  referred  to 
in  Acts  23 :  16. 

Tarsus,  in  addition  to  its  commercial  interests,  was  the 
seat  of  a  university  of  renown,  and  students  came  from  all 
countries.  This  may  have  had  some  influence  in  awakening 
*the  mind  of  the  Jewish  lad  and  implanting  within  him  the 
desire  for  an  education.  His  own  statement,  that  he  was 

205 


ac6  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

"brought  up  in  this  city  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel"  (Acts  22:  5), 
implies  that  in  his  later  childhood,  at  least,  his  parents  either 
removed  to  Jerusalem  or  sent  the  boy  thither,  that  he  might 
be  under  the  teaching  of  the  greatest  Jewish  rabbi  of  the  day, 
Gamaliel,  grandson  of  the  still  greater  Hillel.  We  may  be 
sure  that  in  his  childhood  Paul  had  the  advantage  of  the  best 
Jewish  home-training,  which  meant  careful  and  painstaking 
religious  instruction.  In  Tarsus,  as  a  boy,  he  learned  his 
trade,  that  of  weaving  Cilician  goat's  hair  into  a  coarse 
fabric,  which  was  used  in  the  making  of  mats,  shoes,  and 
tents.  Every  Jewish  son  must  needs  be  taught  a  trade,  and 
this,  crude  and  rough  as  it  was,  proved  very  useful  to  the 
persecuted  apostle  of  later  days. 

II.    Education. 

Gamaliel,  the  leader  of  the  more  tolerant  branch  of  the 
Pharisees,  was  so  liberal  as  to  introduce  the  Greek  learning 
into  his  school  at  Jerusalem.  It  was  undoubtedly  a  fortunate 
circumstance  that  it  was  in  this  school  that  the  intolerant 
young  Saul  was  placed.  He  made  rapid  progress  in  his 
studies,  advanced  beyond  many  of  his  fellow  students  in  his 
knowledge  of  Judaism,  and  showed  himself  to  be  more  ex- 
ceedingly zealous  for  the  traditions  of  the  fathers  than  they. 
(See  Gal.  i:  14.)  The  mastery  of  the  Scriptures  to  which  he 
attained  is  shown  in  his  later  writings.  He  is  able  freely  to 
quote  at  will  from  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
familiar  phraseology  leaves  its  imprint  frequently  on  his 
pages.  His  accurate  knowledge  of  the  law  and  his  skill  in 
the  Rabbinical  learning,  the  result  of  his  study  in  the  schools, 
were  valuable  elements  in  his  equipment  for  his  later  contro- 
versies with  the  Jewish  leaders. 

His  Tarsian  birth  and  Roman  citizenship  made  contribu- 
tions to  his  education  in  the  wider  sense.  His  early  associ- 
ation with  the  cosmopolitan  life  of  Tarsus  gave  him  an  un- 
derstanding of  Gentile  thought  and  an  insight  into  human 
nature  in  its  universal  aspects.  A  Roman  was  a  citizen  of 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  207 

the  world,  and  it  must  needs  be  difficult  for  one  who  inherited 
Roman  citizenship  to  be  dominated  by  a  narrow  religious  ex- 
clusiveness  or  by  intolerant  prejudices.  Paul's  world-vision 
was  the  gift  of  his  birthplace  and  his  birthright.  His  genius 
for  organization  was  also  a  Roman  talent. 

III.    Early  Career  as  a  Pharisee  and  Persecutor. 

Paul  first  comes  prominently  into  view  in  connection  with 
the  death  of  the  first  Christian  martyr,  the  beloved  Stephen. 
The  charge  made  against  him  reminds  us  strongly  of  that 
made  against  Jesus.  The  same  spirit  is  manifest,  and  in  this 
case  also  it  is  allowed  to  work  out  to  its  conclusion,  the  brutal 
murder  of  an  innocent  and  holy  man.  The  ringleaders  in  the 
assault  "laid  down  their  garments  at  the  feet  of  a  young  man 
named  Saul,"  the  statement  giving  us  the  impression  that  he 
was  the  master  whose  directions  they  obeyed  and  whose 
favor  they  coveted.  From  this  time  his  madness  became  in- 
tensified until  he  himself  went  to  the  extreme  length  of  en- 
tering into  the  houses  of  Christians,  dragging  out  men  and 
women,  and  delivering  them  into  prison.  He  came  into  such 
prominence  in  this  work  that  his  name  inspired  terror  in  the 
hearts  of  the  Christians  everywhere;  he  was  recognized  as 
so  effective  a  persecutor  by  his  fellow-religionists  that  the 
Sanhedrin  appointed  him  as  a  special  agent  to  stamp  out  the 
Christian  heresy  in  the  city  of  Damascus. 

IV.   His  Conversion  and  Early  Christian  Life. 

But  God  had  other  work  than  this  for  Saul.  While  on 
the  way  to  Damascus  he  met  with  an  experience  that  sud- 
denly and  completely  changed  the  course  of  his  life.  His 
conversion  is  the  most  striking,  and  the  record  of  it  given 
most  fully,  of  any  in  the  New  Testament.  The  story  is  thrice 
told  in  Acts,  once  by  the  author  in  the  course  of  his  own 
narrative  (9:1-16),  and  thrice  as  a  report  of  speeches  made 
by  Paul  (22:4-16;  26:9-18).  In  addition  Paul  refers  many 


2o8  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

times,  directly  and  indirectly,  to  the  experience  in  his  letters. 
We  can  consider  briefly  only  certain  important  elements  of 
the  conversion. 

Preparation.  The  occurrence  seems  at  first  glance  to  be 
wholly  sudden.  From  various  statements  of  Paul  and  from 
our  knowledge  of  his  early  life,  however,  we  can  see  how  it. 
was  being  prepared  for,  although  doubtless  unconsciously  to 
Paul  himself.  His  native  bigotry  and  intolerance,  and  the 
influence  of  early  Roman  associations  and  of  the  liberal  Greek 
spirit  of  his  school  life  were  at  strife  within  him.  Added  to 
this  was  a  deep  consciousness  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  law 
unto  salvation.  Possessed  of  a  deep  moral  earnestness,  he 
was  inwardly  dissatisfied  with  the  principle  of  outward  con- 
formity to  the  law  as  a  basis  for  salvation.  This  early  con- 
sciousness of  the  powerlessness  of  the  law  is  reflected  in  such 
later  statements  as  that  of  Romans,  chapter  7. 

Physical  Accompaniments.  The  accounts  given  in  the  Acts 
name  certain  accompaniments  of  the  conversion  of  Paul  which 
place  it  in  a  class  almost  by  itself.  These  are :  "a  light  from 
heaven,"  "a  voice,"  a  falling  to  the  earth,  blindness,  return- 
ing sight  at  the  laying- on  of  hands  by  Ananias.  Paul  lays 
no  stress  upon  these  in  his  own  writings.  We  can  not  doubt, 
however,  that  it  was  this  "light"  which  gave  him  the  figure 
which  he  so  often  uses,  as,  for  example,  in  i  Tim.  6:16; 
Rom.  8 :  18 ;  2  Thess.  1:9-11;  2:8. 

Appearance  of  Jesus  to  Paul.  The  apostle  is  ever  sure 
thai  in  his  conversion  experience  he  saw  Jesus.  He  did  not 
account  this  a  subjective  vision,  but  rather  speaks  of  it  con- 
fidently as  an  objective  appearance  to  him  of  the  Risen  Lord. 
In  his  summary  account  of  the  appearance  of  Christ  to  His 
disciples  after  his  resurrection,  he  includes  that  to  himself 
(i  Cor.  15:4-8)  ;  and  again,  he  makes  the  fact  of  his  having 
"seen  Jesus"  a  mark  of  his  apostleship  (i  Cor.  9:  i). 

Inner  Revelation.  Paul  lays  emphasis  upon  the  fact  of 
soul  experience.  Most  important  of  all  statements  concern- 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  209 

ing  his  conversion  is  that  of  Galatians  1:11-17.  In  this  he 
speaks  of  a  Providence  which  has  been  working  even  from 
his  birth  in  preparing  him  for  his  ministry  to  the  Gentiles, 
and  which  culminated  in  an  inner  revelation.  Those  words, 
"It  was  the  good  pleasure  of  God  ...  to  reveal  His  Son 
in  me,"  sound  the  greatest  depths  of  Paul's  conversion. 

The" Importance  of  the  Conversion.  To  Paul  himself  his 
conversion  was  the  greatest  event  of  his  life.  It  was  to  him 
the  real  beginning  of  life.  It  revealed  to  him  his  former 
blindness,  ignorance,  and  sin,  and  a  present  power  unto  sal- 
vation ;  gave  him  an  ever-present  Lord,  his  commission  of 
world-evangelization,  his  authority  for  proclaiming  His  mes- 
sage, a  personal  assurance  that  was  never  dimmed,  and  a 
confidence  that  enabled  him  to  stand  unashamed  and  un- 
abashed before  councils  and  kings. 

Events  Folio-wing  His  Conversion.  The  ministry  of  Ana- 
nias to  Paul  was  a  means  of  introducing  him  to  the  Chris- 
tian community  at  Damascus  (Acts  9:10-19).  His  religious 
zeal  would  not  allow  him  to  remain  silent;  immediately  he 
began  to  proclaim  in  the  synagogues  to  those  whom  a  few 
days  before  he  had  intended  to  incite  against  the  Christians 
that  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God.  His  preaching  at  first  pro- 
duced amazement,  then  consternation,  conviction  in  some, 
and  in  others  wrath.  He  who  had  been  persecutor,  now  was 
persecuted  and  fled  for  his  life  (Acts  9:20-25). 

We  might  conclude  from  the  statement  of  Acts  ( i :  26) 
that  Paul  immediately  returned  to  Jerusalem,  but  this  impres- 
sion is  corrected  by  his  own  special  statement  (Gal.  i :  17) 
that  he  did  not  go  to  Jerusalem,  but  instead  "into  Arabia," 
and  later  returned  to  Damascus.  Arabia  is  an  indefinite  term ; 
exactly  where  he  went,  and  with  what  purpose  in  view,  can 
only  be  conjectured.  The  common  thought  is  that  this  was 
a  period  of  retirement,  affording  opportunity  of  mental  ad- 
justment, during  which  the  new  apostle  was  preparing  him- 
*self  for  his  changed  career.  The  length  of  his  stay  was  some- 
what less  than  three  years  (GaL  1:18).  After  his  return 
14 


2io  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

to  the  scene  of  his  conversion,  Paul  went  up  to  Jerusalem, 
where  his  experience  of  persecution  at  Damascus  was  repeated 
(Acts  9:26-30).  This  Jerusalem  visit  gave  Paul  an  oppor- 
tunity to  become  acquainted  with  Peter  and,  doubtless,  to 
hear  from  his  lips  much  of  the  story  of  the  earthly  life  of 
Jesus.  His  stay  in  Jerusalem  was  brief ;  his  fellow  Christians 
prevailed  upon  him  not  to  endanger  his  life  by  remaining,  and, 
being  escorted  by  them  to  Caesarea,  he  went  into  "the  regions 
of  Syria  and  Cilicia"  (Gal.  i:  18-21).  There  follows  an  ob- 
scure period  of  perhaps  ten  years ;  his  own  statement  in  Gala- 
tians  indicates  that  he  was  occupied  in  successfully  preaching 
the  Christian  faith;  the  statement  of  Acts  15:41,  that  on  a 
later  occasion  Paul  "went  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  confirm- 
ing the  Churches,"  leads  to  the  inference  that  these  were 
Churches  which  he  himself  had  founded  in  this  early  period 
of  his  ministry.  We  can  not  doubt  that  a  part  of  this  time 
was  spent  in  labors  in  Tarsus,  his  birthplace.  In  Tarsus,  at 
any  rate,  he  was  found  by  Barnabas,  and  summoned  to  An- 
tioch,  in  Northern  Syria,  to  assist  in  the  teaching  and  build- 
ing up  in  the  faith  of  a  large  Church  made  up  of  Gentile 
believers.  For  a  year  Barnabas  and  Paul  remained  in  An- 
tioch  as  co-laborers  (Acts  11:25,  26).  From  Antioch  they 
carried  a  contribution  for  famine  relief  to  Jerusalem,  and  then 
finally  took  their  leave  of  this  mother  Church  of  the  Chris- 
tian name  to  embark  on  their  wider  mission  (Acts  11:27-30; 
12  =  35). 

V.  The  Career  of  Paul  as  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles. 

It  is  here  to  be  recalled  that  with  13 :  i  begins  the  second 
part  of  the  Book  of  Acts.  This  second  half  is  devoted  to  a 
rapid  sketch  of  the  journeys  and  labors  of  Paul,  and  supplies 
us  with  our  outline  of  his  missionary  career. 

i.  First  Missionary  Journey.  Certain  prophets  of  the 
Church  in  Antioch  became  impressed  that  the  time  had  come 
for  Barnabas  and  Paul  to  proceed  on  their  divinely  appointed 
mission  to  the  Gentile  world.  With  prayer,  fasting,  and  lay- 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  211 

ing-on  of  hands  they  started  them  forth  (Acts  13:  1-3).  From 
Seleucia,  the  seaport  of  Antioch,  accompanied  by  John  Mark, 
they  sailed  to  Cyprus,  landed  at  Salamis,  its  eastern  port,  and 
journeyed  through  the  whole  island  to  Paphos,  preaching  as 
opportunity  was  had  in  Jewish  synogogues.  At  Paphos  they 
were  summoned  to  attend  upon  Sergius  Paulus,  a  Roman  pro- 
consul. In  his  presence  they  were  withstood  by  one  Bar- 
Jesus,  a  representative  of  an  Oriental  cult,  whom  Paul  con- 
troverted so  successfully  that  the  Roman  official  was  won  to 
discipleship  (Acts  13:4-12).  It  is  at  this  stage  in  the  nar- 
rative that  Luke  substitutes,  without  explanation,  the  name 
Paul  for  Saul.  From  Paphos  the  party  went  by  ship  to  Perga, 
on  the  coast  of  Pamphylia;  where,  for  some  reason  not  clear 
to  us,  John  Mark  turned  back;  while  Paul  and  Barnabas 
proceeded  overland  to  Pisidian  Antioch,  an  important  civic 
and  commercial  center  of  Asia  Minor.  "At  Antioch  and  on- 
wards, Paul  takes  the  lead  in  speech  and  action.  'Barnabas 
and  Saul'  set  out  on  the  expedition ;  'Saul  and  Barnabas'  will 
return."  (Findlay.)  The  work  was  addressed  first  to  the 
Jews,  as  was  Paul's  custom,  but  when  they  sharply  opposed, 
the  missionaries  turned  to  the  Gentiles,  and  labored  with  such 
marked  success  that  the  Jews  were  aroused  to  urgent  meas- 
ures, secured  the  aid  of  the  Roman  officials,  and  drove  them 
from  the  city  (Acts  13:13-52).  The  missionaries  stopped 
next  at  Iconium,  from  which  place,  after  a  stay  of  some 
length,  during  which  a  number  of  Gentile  converts  were 
made,  they  were  again  beset  by  persecution  and  compelled 
to  flee:  first  to  Lystra,  and  later  to  Derbe,  near-by  cities. 
At  the  former  city  Paul  performed  the  first  cure  attributed 
to  him  in  the  Acts,  and  there  also  he  underwent  stoning 
(2  Cor.  11:25).  At  Derbe  many  converts  were  made.  From 
here  the  missionaries  were  suffered  to  depart  in  peace.  Turn- 
ing homeward,  they  visited  the  scenes  of  their  recent  labors, 
preached  in  Perga,  and  then  took  ship  at  Attalia  for  Antioch 
(Acts  14:1-28).  vThe  entire  journey  of  about  fourteen  hun- 
dred miles  by  ship  and  on  foot  had  occupied  between  two- 


2i2  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

and  three  years.  In  this  time  the  gospel  had  been  preached 
over  a  wide  extent  of  territory,  and  at  least  four  Gentile 
Churches  had  been  founded. 

The  period  of  stay  at  Antioch  was  marked  by  an  important 
conference,  the  Council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  15:1-35;  Gal. 
2:1-10),  at  which  Paul's  contention  that  Gentile  converts  to 
Christianity  were  not  bound  by  the  provisions  of  the  Jewish 
law,  was  granted.  The  apparent  exceptions  were  made  as  a 
concession  to  Jewish  social  customs.  This  decision  was  a 
vital  matter,  not  only  to  the  success  of  Christian  missionary 
endeavor  among  the  Gentiles,  but  to  the  gospel  itself,  since 
involved  in  it  was  the  whole  question  of  whether  Christianity 
was  to  be  merely  a  new  branch  grafted  on  to  Judaism  or 
whether  it  was  to  be  a  new  religion  superseding  Judaism. 

2.  Second  Missionary  Journey.  The  immediate  purpose 
of  Paul  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  journey  was  to  "visit 
the  brethren  in  every  city"  wherein  he  had  proclaimed  the 
gospel  (Acts  15:36-41).  Owing  to  a  disagreement  between 
Paul  and  Barnabas  as  to  whether  John  Mark,  who  had  pre- 
viously turned  back  at  Pamphylia,  should  accompany  them, 
Paul  chose  a  new  companion,  Silas,  and  proceeded  overland 
through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  the  scene  of  his  first  missionary 
labors,  to  Derbe  and  Lystra. 

At  Lystra  they  found  a  new  companion  in  travel,  Timothy, 
a  half-Jew,  who  was  to  prove  himself  Paul's  steadfast  and 
loyal  friend  and  helper.  The  desire  of  the  missionaries  was 
to  extend  the  work  of  evangelization  into  other  parts  of  Asia 
Minor,  but  God  had  yet  larger  plans,  and  at  Troas,  Paul 
heard  in  the  night  the  "Macedonian  call"  (Acts  16:  i-io). 
He  was  not  one  to  hesitate  when  the  question  was  that  of 
carrying  the  gospel  into  new  fields.  At  once  the  decision  was 
made  to  enter  Europe. 

The  place  of  his  first  labor  was  Philippi,  the  chief  city  of 
Macedonia  (Acts  16:11-40).  Here  immediate  results  at- 
tended his  preaching,  and  in  a  stay  of  considerable  duration 
Paul  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Church  which  in  later  years 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  213 

he  rejoiced  to  speak  of  as  his  "joy  and  crown"  (Phil.  4:  i). 
To  one  of  his  burning  zeal  it  was  merely  incidental  that  at 
Philippi  He  suffered  one  of  "many  perils  from  the  heathen," 
one  of  many  imprisonments,  and  one  of  three  beatings  with 
Roman  rods. 

Leaving  Philippi,  Paul  and  Silas  labored  in  Thessalonica, 
the  modern  Salonica,  to-day  a  prosperous  city  of  Turkey  in 
Europe,  then  as  now  possessed  of  important  commercial  in- 
terests, a  center  from  which  the  gospel  might  spread  by  land 
and  by  sea.  Again  a  Church  was  established,  and  many 
Gentiles,  worshipers  of  idols,  were  received  into  membership. 
Luke's  narrative  suggests  a  brief  stay  of  three  weeks'  dura- 
tion, but  we  know  from  Paul's  own  words  that  twice  while 
he  remained  in  Thessalonica  the  Church  at  Philippi  sent  him 
aid  (Phil.  4:  16),  and  also  that  he  there  worked  at  his  trade 
of  tent-making  (Thess.  2:9).  These  statements  indicate  a 
longer  period  of  time. 

At  Beroea  the  gospel  was  received  with  pleasing  readiness. 
Disturbances  followed,  but  before  an  open  outbreak  occurred 
Paul  went  to  some  near-by  seaport,  and  thence  by  ship  to 
Athens,  leaving  Silas  and  Timothy  to  continue  the  work  for 
a  time,  and  then  to  follow  him  (Acts  17:10-15).  (At  his 
departure  from  Macedonia  he  had  implanted  the  gospel  in 
three  important  centers,  from  whence  it  was  carried  rapidly 
throughout  all  the  province. )  Paul's  stay  in  Athens  was  short, 
and  so  far  as  we  have  record  no  definite  results  were  accom- 
plished (Acts  17:16-34).  Timothy  seems  to  have  rejoined 
him  and  to  have  been  sent  as  Paul's  messenger  to  Thessa- 
lonica (i  Thess.  3:1),  while  Paul  himself  later  pushed  on 
to  Corinth,  the  capital  city  of  Achaia,  probably  his  objective 
point  when  he  left  Beroea.  His  ministry  in  Corinth  is  of 
especial  interest  for  a  number  of  reasons.  On  his  arrival 
he  met  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  who  were  thereafter  closely 
associated  with  him  in  fellowship  and  labors.  Jewish  influ- 
e^nce  was  slight  in  Corinth,  and  the  Jews'  attempt  at  perse- 
cution here  signally  failed.  A  Church  was  founded,  to  which 


2I4  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

was  addressed  two  of  the  apostle's  principal  letters.  Paul  re- 
mained in  Corinth  for  eighteen  months  (read  Acts  18:  1-18; 
compare  i  Cor.  2:1-5;  2  Cor.  11:7-9),  Probably  within  the 
first  six  months  he  wrote  the  First  Letter  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians;  this  was  followed  just  a  little  later  by  the  Second  Let- 
ter to  the  Thessalonians. 

FIRST  LETTER  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 

1.  Occasion  and  Purpose.     Timothy  had  come  from  Thessa- 
lonica  bearing  favorable  tidings  concerning  the  Church  (i  Thess. 
3:6,  7)  and  Paul  writes  :      (a)    To  return  greetings  and  to  send 
a  message  of  affection ;    (b)    to   comfort  them   concerning   their 
afflictions   (3 :  4,  6-8)  ;    (c)   to  exhort  them  as  a  father  to  even 
greater  love,  faith,  and  virtue  (3  :  11-13),  (compare  2:  u  ;  5  :  22)  ; 
(d)   to  correct  the  misapprehension  of   some  who   thought  that 
those  of  their  friends  who  had  died  before  the  second  coming 
of  the   Lord   could   not   share   in   the  triumph   of   His   kingdom 
(4:  13-18)  ;  and  (e)  to  warn  against  a  tendency,  which  some  had 
manifested,  toward  immorality  (4:2-7). 

2.  Character  of  the  Letter.     It  is  not  a  doctrinal  letter,  has 
no  note  of  controversy,  and  is  one  of  the  most  gentle  and  af- 
fectionate of  Paul's  Epistles   (2:8,   17-20;   3:9,   10).     It  bears 
testimony  to  the  expectation,   which  prevailed  generally   in   the 
early    Church,    of  the   immediate   return   of    Christ    (4:  16,    17). 
Special    interest   attaches   to    it   by   virtue    of    its   being   the   first 
of  the  Epistles  of  Paul  and  therefore  perhaps  the  earliest  writ- 
ten document  of  the  Christian  religion. 

3.  The  Thessalonian  Christians.    The  letter  bears  strong  tes- 
timony to  the  Christian  character  of  these  recent  converts  from 
heathenism.     They  are  an  example  to  others   (1:7),  their  faith 
has  sounded  abroad  (i  :  8),  they  have  manifested  strong  brotherly 
love  (4:9,  10)  and  a  spirit  of  patience  (1:3),  joy  (i  :  6),  and 
long-suffering  (2:  14). 

SECOND  LETTER  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 

Occasion  and  Content.  Doubtless  the  apostle  had  again  re- 
ceived direct  information  as  to  the  situation  in  the  Church  at 
Thessalonica.  It  appears  from  the  letter  that  the  disciples'  faith 
in  God  had  continued  to  increase  (1:3),  that  brotherly  love 
abounded  (1:3),  and  that  the  Christians  showed  much  patience 
in  the  presence  of  continued  affliction  and  persecutions  (1:4). 
The  Church  was,  however,  increasingly  troubled  concerning  the 
coming  of  Christ  (2:1-3,  15),  the  moral  disorder  among  some 
had  increased  (3  :  6),  and  there  was  a  marked  tendency  among 
the  disciples  toward  idleness  (3  :  7-11).  The  coming  of  the  Lord 
may  almost  be  stated  to  be  the  theme  of  the  letter.  Paul 
attributes  the  prevalent  restlessness  to  the  belief  that  the  day 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  215 

of  the  Lord  is  already  at  hand  and  declares  that  certain  things 
must  first  occur.  The  statements  concerning  the  "man  of  sin" 
and  the  "mystery  of  lawlessness,"  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  pass- 
age, 2  :  3-12,  is  exceedingly  difficult,  if  not  quite  impossible  of 
interpretation.  Rather  than  choose  among  the  multitude  of  dif- 
ferent interpretations,  we  probably  can  not  do  better  than  to  say 
•with  Augustine,  "Forsooth,  I  confess  myself  to  be  ignorant  of 
what  Paul  might  mean."  Directions  are  given  concerning  Church 
discipjine  (3:6,  14,  15),  and  concerning  idleness  (3:12).  The 
teaching  of  this  Epistle  on  the  Christian  duty  of  courage,  calm- 
ness, and  industry  are  clear,  strong,  and  of  permanent  value. 
This  is  the  shortest  letter  of  Paul  addressed  to  a  Church. 

From  Cenchrea,  a  harbor  of  Corinth,  Paul  set  sail  for  An- 
tioch ;  on  the  way  he  made  a  hurried  visit  to  Ephesus,  where 
he  left  his  new  companions  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  then  touched 
at  Csesarea,  and  possibly  went  up  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  18: 
19-22). 

His  second  journey  occupied  approximately  three  years, 
extended  over  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  Roman  Em- 
pire, and  effectually  planted  the  gospel  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  apostle  had  traveled  in  the  slow  and  laborious 
fashion  of  ancient  days  scarcely  less  than  three  thousand 
miles,  had  labored  in  some  of  the  most  important  centers  of 
influence  and  civilization  in  the  Roman  world,  and  had  dem- 
onstrated the  power  of  the  gospel  to  gain  a  foothold  among 
the  Gentiles  under  most  unfavorable  conditions.  During  this 
journey  more  than  ever  before  Paul  showed  his  splendid 
imperial  spirit  and  made  his  greatest  conquests  for  the  cross. 

THE  LETTER  To  THE  GALATIANS. 

i.  To  Whom  Written.  The  term  Galatia  as  used  in  the 
Epistle  is  ambiguous ;  it  may  refer  to  Galatia  proper,  a  country 
in  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor  inhabited  by  Gallic  tribes  which 
had  migrated  thither  from  the  West,  or  it  may  refer  to  the 
Roman  province  of  Galatia,  to  the  southwest  of  the  former  region. 
If  the  first  mentioned  view,  called  the  North  Galatian  theory,  is 
naaintained,  the  letter  was  written  to  certain  unknown  churches 
in  a  region  which  Paul  is  not  definitely  known  to  have  visited ; 
if  the  second  or  South  Galatian  view  is  held,  the  letter  was 
written  to  the  churches  in  Pisidian  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
IXerbe,  established  on  the  first  missionary  journey.  The  greater 
probability  may  be  said  to  be  with  the  South  Galatian  theory. 


216  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

2.  Occasion  and  Purpose  of  the  Letter.     Originally  the  Gala- 
tians  had  received  the  gospel  which  Paul  had  preached  with  much 
enthusiasm  (4:  12-15),  and  for  a  time  they  had  run  well  (5  :  7). 
Recently,   however,   Judaizing    influences   had    come    in,   probably 
under  the  leadership  of  some  one  individual  of  authority   (1:8; 
3:1),  and  they  were  being  led  into  a  subserviency  to  the  Jewish 
law  (4:9,  10 ;  5:3).     To  Paul  this  is  not  merely  a  retrograde 
movement,  it  is  a  subversion  of  the  gospel,  an  actual  renuncia- 
tion of  Christ   (1:6;    5:2,  4).     Paul  writes  to  re-establish  the 
authority  of  his   teaching  among  them,   and   to  win   them   back 
again  to  the  pure  gospel  of  salvation  by  faith  in  Jesus  Christ, 
apart  from  works  of  the  law. 

3.  Characterisation  of  the  Letter.     This  is  pre-eminently  the 
Epistle  of  Freedom.     By  this  letter  Paul  settled  forever  the  vex- 
atious question  of  the  relation   of  Christians  to  the  Jewish  law. 
He  perceived  clearly  what  no  other  apostle  seems  to  have  realized, 
that  to  concede  anything  else  than   the  cross  of   Christ   as  es- 
sential to  salvation  was  to  minimize  and  eventually  to  nullify  the 
work   of   Christ.      Hence   he   threw   himself   with    all    his   power 
into  the  controversy.     He  writes  with  enthusiasm,  with  warmth, 
with  vehemence,  almost,  as  Weiss  says,  "with  passionate  irrita- 
tion."   He  maintains  throughout  a  spirit  of  severe  remonstrance; 
unlike  his  other  letters,  there  is  here  no  word  of  congratulation, 
praise,  or  thanksgiving ;  he  writes  with  one  thought,  one  purpose, 
from  the  first  sentence  to  the  last. 

3.  Third  Missionary  Journey  and  Imprisonment  in  Cces- 
area  and  in  Rome.  When  Paul  again  left  Antioch  it  was 
at  first  to  visit  certain  Churches  located,  according  to  the 
phrase  of  Luke,  in  "the  country  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia" 
(Acts  18:23).  Later,  in  fulfillment  of  his  promise,  he  came 
to  Ephesus,  where  he  made  what  was  for  him  a  stay  of  great 
length — three  years;  a  period  marked  by  notable  successes, 
heroic  labors,  great  privations,  and  strange  perils.  (Read 
Acts  19: 1  to  20:  i ;  20:  18-35;  i  Cor.  4: 11-13;  l  Cor.  15:32; 
2  Cor.  i :  8-1 1.)  From  Ephesus  the  First  Letter  to  the  Co- 
rinthians was  written. 

THE  FIRST  LETTER  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 

i.  Occasion  and  Purpose.  Tidings  came  from  Corinth  to 
Paul  bearing  unfavorable  news  concerning  the  Corinthian  church. 
He  wrote  them  a  letter  (5:9),  now  lost,  in  which  he  rebuked 
evil  and  commanded  them  to  separate  themselves  from  immoral 
persons,  promised  to  visit  them,  and  gave  directions  concerning 
an  offering.  Meanwhile,  members  of  the  household  of  Chloe 
came  to  him  with  additional  information  concerning  the  situ- 
ation in  the  Church  (1:11);  other  friends  also  came  to  him 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  217 

from  Corinth  (16:  17),  and  finally  he  received  a  letter  from  the 
Church.  From  these  various  sources  he  learned :  (a)  that  there 
were  four  distinct  factions  in  the  Church  ;  (b)  that  there  was 
immorality  ir  the  Church,  cne  case  being  particularly  heinous ; 
and  (c)  that  members  of  the  Church  had  disagreements  and 
carried  these  quarrels  into  the  civil  courts.  Their  letter  asked 
certain  practical  questions  concerning  important  matters.  Paul 
wrote  the  Epistle  in  order  to  rebuke  the  evils  existent  in  the 
Church  and  to  answer  their  questions. 

2.  The   Church    of   Corinth.      It    must   be   remembered    that 
Corinth  was  one  of  the  most  wicked  cities  of  the  ancient  world, 
and   that   this   Church   was   surrounded   by   heathen    customs   and 
practices ;    many    of    its    members    had    been    but    recently    con- 
verted from  heathenism  to   Christianity.     It  was  far   from  being 
an   ideal  Church,  but  there  were  those  among  its  members  who 
were  true  Christians  lacking  in   nothing  (i  :  4-8).     For  the  most 
part  they  were  poor  people,   without  pride  of  birth   or   learning 
(i  :  26)-. 

3.  Character  of  the  Letter.    It  is  noteworthy  for  its  practical 
character  :   it  concerns  itself  with  the  everyday  life  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Church.     It  treats  of  but  one  doctrine,  that  of  the 
resurrection.     Paul  is  here  revealed  as  the  bishop  of  souls,  con- 
cerned  for  the  welfare   of   each.     The   letter   has   some   of  the 
greatest  passages  of  the  New  Testament ;  every  Christian  should 
be    familiar   with   the   chapter   on   "The   Greatest   Thing   in   the 
\Vorld"  (Ch.   13)  ;  the  Resurrection  Chapter  (Ch.   15)  ;  the  con- 
trast between   earthly   wisdom   and   heavenly   foolishness    (i : 18- 
25);   the  description  of  the  apostolic  labors    (4:9-13),   and  the 
description  of  the  Christian  race  (9:24-27). 

4.  Outline,      i.    Salutation,    i  :  1-3.     2.  Thanksgiving,    i  :  4-9. 
3.  Practical    and    doctrinal    instruction,    1:9 — 15:58.      (i)    Re- 
buke   of    divisions    and    the    factional    spirit,    i:  10-42;    (2)    The 
Case  of  the  chief  sinner,   5:  1-13;    (3)    Lawsuits  between   Church 
members,    6:1-11;    (4)    Fornication,    6:12-20;    (5)    Concerning 
marriage,    7 :  1-40 ;    (6)    Concerning    meats    sacrificed    to    idols, 
8:  i — 11:1;   (7)   Concerning  head  dress,   11:2-16;   (8)   Concern- 
ing the  Lord's  Supper,   n  :  17-34;    (9)   Concerning  spiritual  gifts, 
12:1 — 14:40;    (10)  The  resurrection,  15:1-58.     4.  Special  mes- 
sages and  the  benediction,   16:  1-24. 

Lesson  Outline: 

Birth  and  childhood. 
Education. 

Early  career  as  a  Pharisee  and  persecutor. 
Conversion  and  early  Christian  life. 

The  career  of  Paul  as  apostle  to  the  Gentiles :  First  mission- 
t  ary    journey ;    second    missionary   journey,    with    letters 

written  during  the  period ;  third  missionary  journey  be- 
gun. 


THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Books  for  Reference: 

Gilbert,  "The  Student's  Life  of  Paul." 

Stalker,  "The  Life  of  Paul." 

Conybeare  &  Howson,  "Life  and  Epistles  of  Paul." 

Findley,  "The  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle." 

Stevens,  "The  Pauline  Theology." 

Sanday,  "Commentary  on  Romans." 

Hastings,  "One  Volume  Dictionary." 

Commentaries  on  the  various  Epistles  in  the  "International 

Critical  Commentary"  series,  and  in  the  Cambridge  Bible 

ior  Schools  and  Colleges. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  The  early  education  of  Paul  as  a  Jewish  youth. 

2.  The  dissatisfaction  of  Paul  with  Judaism. 

3.  Paul  as  a  missionary. 

4.  Paul's  Christian  view  of  the  law. 

5.  The  inner  life  of  an  early   Christian   Church  as  seen  in 

the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  Influence  of  his  Tarsian  birth  upon  the  life  of  Paul. 

2.  To  what  extent  is  the  conversion  of  Paul  to  be  taken  as 

a  normal  type  of  conversion  ? 

3.  Compare  the  labors  of  Paul  to  those  of  a  modern   mis- 

sionary. 

4.  The  relation  of  Paul  to  the  Churches  which  he  "founded, 

5.  The  cEief  teachings  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL— CONTINUED 

Third  Missionary  Journey — Continued.  When  Paul  wrote 
First  Corinthians  he  was  expecting  before  long  to  leave 
Ephesus.  This  he  probably  did.  There  is  a  total  absence 
of  details  as  to  his  movements  after  leaving  that  city.  We 
do  know  this,  that  some  time  later  he  went  into  Macedonia 
(Acts  20 :  i),  having  been  disappointed  in  his  expectation  of 
meeting  Titus  in  Troas  with  tidings  from  the  Corinthian 
Church  (2  Cor.  2:12,  13).  After  he  came  into  Macedonia 
his  expectation  was  fulfilled — he  met  Titus,  and  in  response, 
doubtless,  to  the  message  which  he  brought,  wrote  the  Second 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

THE  SECOND  LETTER  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 

1.  Occasion    and    Purpose.      There    is    evidence    that    much 
more   by   way   of  communication   passed   between    Paul   and  the 
Church   at   Corinth  than   has   come   down  to  us.      Both   our  first 
and  second  letters  are  members  of  a  series,  of  which  others  of 
the  series  have  been  lost.     The  apostle  is  intensely  interested  in 
this  Church  ;  it  has  caused  him  much  care,  perplexity,  and  grief, 
but  he  yearns  over   it  as  one  of  his  own   children.     Titus  has 
come    with    information    and    messages,    and    he    writes    out    of 
affection    and    solicitude    for   them,    in    self-defense    against   the 
false    charges    of    enemies,    and   to    warn,    exhort,    and    instruct 
them. 

2.  Situation   in   the   Church.      In   general   the   condition    of 
the    Chxirch    has    improved.      The    guilty    have    shown    grief    and 
repentance    (7:9);    the    factional    spirit   has    to    a   large    extent 
disappeared,    but    in    one    respect    the    situation    is    intensified — 
defiant  and  slanderous  opposition  to  Paul  is  manifested  by  some 
in  the  Church   (Chapters   10  and   n). 

3.  Character  and  Content  of  the  Letter.     This  letter  is  very 
different  from  the  calm,  clear,   and   definite    i    Corinthians.      It 
is  exceedingly  emotional,  showing  mingled  joy,  grief,  and  indig- 
nation,  is  involved  in   style,  almost  impossible  of  analysis,   and 
full    of    digressions    in    subject.      It    is    intensely    personal ;    the 

219 


220  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

apostle  bares  his  heart  and  speaks  forth  his  inmost  thought 
and  feeling.  Here  only  he  speaks  of  two  secret  matters  of 
his  inner  life — his  rapture  of  the  "third  heaven"  (12:1-4), 
and  his  "thorn  in  the  flesh"  (12:7-9).  As  no  other  letter,  it 
shows  the  intense  personal  opposition  Paul  encountered  in  his 
work ;  it  was  charged  against  him  that  his  bodily  presence  was 
weak  (10:10),  that  he  was  rude  in  speech  (11:6),  his  words 
of  no  account  (10:10),  that  he  corrupted  the  Word  of  God 
(2:17),  that  his  gospel  was  veiled  (4:3),  that  he  boasted  un- 
duly (10:8),  that  he  was  beside  himself  (5:3)-  These  and 
many  other  slanderous  and  unjust  charges  may  be  read  in  the 
statements  which  Paul  makes  in  self-defense. 

Two  especially  noteworthy  passages  of  the  letter  are — on 
giving.  Chapters  8  and  9,  and  on  his  own  labors  and  sufferings, 
11:21-33. 

Paul  made  a  tour  through  Macedonia,  visiting  the 
Churches,  and  then  proceeded  into  Achaia,  where  he  spent 
three  months  (Acts  20:2,  3).  During  this  time  he  probably 
fulfilled  his  long-delayed  promise  of  visiting  the  Church  at 
Corinth  (i  Cor.  16:5-7;  2  Cor.  1:15,  16,  23;  12:14;  13:1). 
While  staying  with  Gaius  (Rom.  16:23;  I  Cor.  1:14)  in 
Corinth,  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

THE  LETTER  TO  THE  ROMANS. 

1.  Occasion  and  Purpose.     Unlike  the  other  letters  of  Paul 
to  Churches,  this  was  written  to  a  Church  which  Paul  ha-d  never 
visited.     In  pursuance  of  his  plan  to  preach  the  gospel   in   the 
great  centers  of  the  empire,  Paul  had  long  desired  to  undertake 
work   in    Rome    (1:13).     At  the   time   of   writing,    his    purpose 
was  hindered  by  the  urgency  of  his  journey  to  Jerusalem  ;  that 
accomplished,  he  will  come  to  them  (15:22-29).     Prevented,  for 
the  time  being,  from  preaching  to  them,  he  will  present  to  them 
his  gospel  in  writing.     Possibly  he  feared  that  his  enemies,  who 
had  perverted  the  true  gospel  in  other  places,  would  reach  Rome 
in    advance   of   him,    and    desired    to    establish    them    beforehand 
by  the  spiritual  gifts  of  his  instruction  and  exhortation   (i  :  n). 

2.  Content  of  the  Letter.     The   central   theme   is   stated   in 
i  :  16-17 — the  gospel  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation  to  every 
one  that  believes,  both  Jew  and  Greek.     In  elaboration   of  the 
theme,    the    apostle    declares    that    sin    and    guilt    are    universal 
and  justification  by  works  of  the  law  is  impossible,  i  :  18 — 3  :  20 ; 
in    Christ   Jesus    a    new    righteousness,    achieved    through    faith 
apart  from  the  law,  has  been  manifested,   3:21-26;   this  salva- 
tion   carries   with    it   rich    spiritual    blessings,    5:1-11;    whereas 
through    Adam    sin    and    death    entered    into    the    world,    now 
through   Jesus   Christ   has   come   this   free   gift   of  justification, 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  221 

5 :  12-21  ;  the  justified  man  is  dead  to  sin,  Ch.  6 ;  dead  to  law, 
Ch.  7.  A  triumphant  assertion  of  the  glory  and  blessedness 
of  the  Christian  salvation  follows,  8:18-39.  Chapters  Q,  10, 
and  ii  treat  of  the  rejection  of  Israel  and  the  acceptance  of 
the  Gentiles.  In  12:1 — 15:13,  Paul  exhorts  his  brethren  to 
offer  themselves  to  God,  to  live  worthily  as  a  member  of  the 
body  of  Christ,  as  a  subject  of  the  civil  government,  and  as  a 
member  of  society.  The  letter  closes  with  personal  messages, 
concluding  exhortations,  and  doxology,  15:14 — 16:27. 

From  Corinth,  Paul  turns  his  face  towards  Jerusalem  with 
the  purpose  of  conveying  to  the  poor  among  the  saints  an 
offering  which  he  had  been  gathering  gradually  for  over  two 
years.  (See  i  Cor.  16:  i ;  2  Cor.  9:  6-22;  2  Cor.  9:  2.)  Seven 
men,  representatives  of  the  Churches,  besides  Luke,  accompa- 
nied him  (Acts  20:  4-6).  Traveling  by  a  circuitous  route,  the 
company  finally  reached  Jerusalem,  eager  to  present  to  their 
Jewish  brethren  the  gifts  of  the  Gentile  Christians,  to  hear 
testimony  to  the  fruits  of  the  gospel  in  new  fields,  and  to 
defend  the  labors  and  the  preaching  of  the  missionary  apostle 
against  the  charges  of  his  enemies  (Acts  20:4  to  21:16). 
But  this  mission,  conceived  in  love  and  sacrifice,  was  to  meet 
with  tragic  failure.  Luke  barely  mentions  the  reception  of 
the  party  by  the  Jerusalem  brethren,  and  hurries  on  into  the 
shameful  account  of  the  attack  of  the  Jewish  multitude  upon 
Paul,  his  rescue  by  the  chief  captain,  his  speech  to  the  people 
in  Hebrew,  his  escape  from  scourging  by  a  declaration  of  his 
Roman  citizenship,  his  address  before  the  Sanhedrin,  the  plot 
of  the  Jews  to  kill  him,  his  conveyance  escorted  by  soldiers 
to  Caesarea,  his  hearing,  first  before  Felix,  the  procurator,  and 
then  before  Felix  and  Brasilia;  his  detention  for  two  years 
in  prison  without  trial,  his  preliminary  examination  before 
Porcius  Festus,  successor  to  Felix;  his  appeal  to  the  emperor, 
and  his  hearing  before  Agrippa  II,  the  tetrarch,  and  Bernice. 
(Read  Acts  21:  17  to  26:32.) 

Paul's  appeal  to  the  emperor  necessitated  a  voyage  to 
Rome,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  for  trial.  Luke  gives  account 
o|  the  voyage  as  a  fellow  traveler,  records  a  conference  of 
Paul  with  the  Jews  in  Rome,  and  abruptly  ends  the  Book  of 


222  THE  WORKER  AXD  HIS  BIBLE 

Acts  with  the  statement  that  for  two  years  Paul  was  accorded 
the  privilege  of  living  in  his  own  rented  quarters  and  of 
teaching  the  gospel  to  all  who  came  to  him  (Acts  27:  i  to 
28:31).  Additional  light  is  shed  on  the  imprisonment  by 
statements  in  the  epistles.  (See  Phil.  1:12-14;  4:18,  22; 
Eph.  3: 1 ;  4: 1 ;  6:21,  22;  Philemon  I,  8-14,  22-24.)  During 
this  imprisonment  Paul  wrote  the  letters  to  the  Philippians, 
Philemon,  Colossians,  and  Ephesians. 

THE  LETTER  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 

1.  Occasion    and   Purpose.      A    remarkable   bond    of   love, 
sympathy,   and   fellowship   existed  between   this   Church   and  its 
founder.     Twice  out  of   their  poverty   they   sent  him  voluntary 
pecuniary  aid.     They  were  his  solace  in  affliction,   his  joy  and 
his  crown.     In  them  he   found   constant   reasons   for   rejoicing. 
The   letter    is    an    expression    of   this    relationship.      It   bears   a 
message  of   love.     This   is   the   real   occasion   for   writing.     An 
opportunity  for  sending  the  message  to  them  is  afforded  by  the 
departure   of    Epaphroditus    from    Rome    for    Philippi.      He    has 
had    no    earlier    opportunity    of    thanking    them    for    their    gift 
sent  to  him  through  this  same  messenger   (Phil.  4:  18). 

2.  Characterization    of   the   Letter.      This    is    a    real    letter, 
informal,   familiar — a  spontaneous   utterance  of  love   and   grati- 
tude.    It  has  no  logical  plan,  no   doctrinal  arguments.     In  the 
simple  terms  of  intimate  friendly  intercourse,  the  essential  sub- 
stance of  the  gospel  is  presented.     Paul  is  here,  not  the  soldier 
engaged   in   battle,    not   the    keen,    abstruse    advocate    advancing 
arguments,  but  the  tender,  warm-hearted,  loving  friend,  pastor, 
and  brother.      Read   this   letter  often — the   whole   letter   at   one 
sitting,  for  its  high  spirit.     It  is  splendid  spiritual  tonic. 

THE  LETTER  TO  PHILEMON. 

The  occasion  of  this  letter  is  clearly  shown  in  it.  Onesimus, 
a  runaway  slave  of  Philemon  of  Colossae,  in  Rome  came  under 
the  influence  of  Paul  and  became  a  Christian.  Paul  sends  him 
back  to  his  owner  in  the  care  of  Tychicus,  and  with  him  this 
letter.  It  is,  therefore,  a  letter  to  an  individual  on  a  private 
matter,  but  it  is  of  inestimable  worth  for  the  revelation  it 
bears  of  the  power  of  the  gospel  to  win  and  transform  a  poor 
slave,  to  soften  harsh  heathen  customs,  and  to  mediate  between 
the  classes  of  ancient  society.  "This  letter  became  the  Magna 
Charta  of  freedom  throughout  the  world"  (Farrar). 

THE  LETTER  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS. 

i.  Occasion  and  Purpose.  This  letter,  as  Romans,  was 
written  to  a  Church  not  founded  by  Paul.  Word  had  come  to 
the  apostle  through  Epaphras  of  the  love  and  faith  of  the 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  223 

Colossian  Christians  (1:7,  8),  but  also  of  false  teaching  dis- 
seminated among  them.  This  teaching  apparently  had  dis- 
placed Jesus  Christ  as  the  object  of  their  reverence,  love,  faith, 
and  worship,  and  had  involved  them  in  philosophical  specula- 
tion (2:8),  in  the  observance  of  circumcision,  of  feast  days, 
new  moons,  and  Sabbath  days  (2:11,  16),  in  the  worship  of 
angels  (2:  18),  and  had  led  them  to  profess  a  hidden  wisdom 
(2:3),  to  show  spiritual  pride  and  exclusiveness,  and  to  a  neg- 
lect of  the  fundamental  moral  principles  of  Christianity.  Paul 
writes  to  correct  these  errors  and  to  restore  Jesus  Christ  to  His 
rightful  place  among  them. 

2.  Characterization  of  the  Letter.  Colossians  presents  more 
fully  than  any  other  Epistle  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  person  of 
Christ.  Over  against  the  false  teaching  which  had  proven  so 
attractive  to  them,  Paul  sets  the  thought  of  the  supremely  ex- 
alted nature  and  perfect  spiritual  work  of  Jesus  Christ.  Col. 
1 :  15-20  should  be  remembered  by  every  Christian  as  a  most 
remarkable  statement  of  the  pre-eminence  of  the  Savior. 

THE  LETTER  TO  THE  EPHESIANS. 

1.  To   Whom    Written.     The  words  "at   Ephesus,"   of   I :  I, 
are  not   found   in   three   of   the   most   important   ancient   manu- 
script copies.     Paul  was  intimately  acquainted  with  the   Chris- 
tians at  Ephesus  from  his  prolonged  stay  there,  yet  this  letter 
has  no  personal  greetings.     Many  hold  that  the  letter  was  written, 
not  to  any  one  Church,  but  as  an  encyclical  letter  to  be  sent 
in   turn    to    various    Churches,    the    Church    at    Ephesus    among 
others.     (Note  Col.  4:  16,  last  clause.) 

2.  Characterisation  of  the  Letter.     This  letter  is  character- 
ized by:    (i)    Its  presentation   of  the  exalted  nature  and  office 
of    Christ    (1:20-23;    2:13-22);    (2)    its    setting    forth    of   the 
eternal  purpose  of  God   (2:3-5;   2:4-7;   3:9-12);    (3)   a  broad 
catholic  spirit ;  there  is  here  no  tone  of  controversy ;  the  thought 
transcends  local  transitional  issues  and  presents  a  picture  of  the 
triumphant  universal  Church  of  Christ  of  the  future   (2:  11-22; 
3:1-12;  4:4);    (4)   an  exalted  ideal  of  the  Christian  character 
and  life  (1:4,   15-23;   2:10;  3:14-21;   4:1-3;    5:1;   6:10-18). 
"In  the  depth  of  its  theology,  in  the  loftiness  of  its  morals,  in 
the  way  in  which  the  simplest  moral  truths  are  based  upon  the 
profoundest  religious  doctrine,  this   Epistle   is  unparalleled.      It 
is  the  most  sublime,  the  most  profound,  the  most  advanced,  the 
final  utterance  of  Paul's  gospel  to  the  Gentiles."     (Farrar.) 

4.  The  Closing  Years.  The  concluding  statement  of  Acts 
leads  to  the  inference  that  Paul  was  released  from  imprison- 
mejat,  since  no  word  is  said  concerning  his  death  in  that  con- 
nection. There  is  no  place  in  the  preceding  history  where 


224  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

the  Pauline  pastoral  epistles  seem  to  fit.  By  references  in 
them  to  persons  and  places,  together  with  statements  of  his 
hopes  and  plans  for  the  future  in  the  earlier  letters,  it  is 
possible  to  form  some  idea  of  the  ministry  and  travel  of  the 
last  years  of  the  apostle's  life.  We  may  be  sure  that  a  first 
thought  was  to  visit  once  again  as  many  as  possible  of  the 
Churches  he  had  founded  from  Corinth  through  Achaia, 
Macedonia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria.  He  had  long  desired  to 
preach  the  gospel  in  Spain;  tradition  tells  us  that  this  desire 
was  gratified.  Places  definitely  mentioned  are:  Macedonia 
(i  Tim.  1:33),  Crete  (Titus  1:5),  Nicopolis  (Titus  3:12), 
Troas  (2  Tim.  4:13),  Corinth  (2  Tim.  4:20),  Miletus 
(2  Tim.  4:  20).  During  these  journeyings  First  Timothy  and 
Titus  were  written. 

THE  FIRST  LETTER  TO  TIMOTHY. 

1.  Authenticity    of    the   Pastoral   Epistles.      From    the    pas- 
toral character  of  the  two  letters  addressed  to  Timothy  and  the 
letter  to   Titus,   the  three   have   been   commonly   known   as   the 
Pastoral   Epistles.     There  is   not   the   same  unanimity   of  judg- 
ment among   scholars   concerning  the   genuineness    of   the    Pas- 
toral   Epistles  as  concerning  the   earlier  letters.      Some   profess 
not  to  be  able  to  find  a  place  or  time  for  them  in  Paul's  life ; 
others   object   to   them    on    the    ground    of   their    differences    in 
vocabulary   and    style   from   the    earlier   letters,    and    yet   others 
on    the    ground    that    they    reflect    a    different    condition    in    the 
Church.     Many  scholars  hold  that  while  these  letters  may  have 
been   somewhat  amended   by   later   hands,    yet  the   substance   of 
them  is  from  the  apostle.     In  the  thought  cf  the  great  majority 
of  the  Church,  they  always  have  been  and  doubtless  will   ever 
continue    to    be    indissolubly    connected    with    the    name    of   the 
apostle  Paul. 

2.  Purpose  and  Content.    This  is  a  letter  of  general  instruc- 
tion   and    exhortation    to    Paul's    "true    child    in    the    faith."      It 
reflects  a  condition  in  the  Church  at  Ephesus,  to  which  Timothy 
held    an    intimate    relationship,    which    Paul    desired    to    correct; 
he  warns   against  false  speculation   and   against  legalistic   teach- 
ing  (1:3-11;  4:1-5;   6:20,   21),   emphasizes  the   importance  of 
Timothy    himself    living    above    all    reproach    (5:21,    22;    4:12; 
6:  11-16),  sets  a  high  standard  in  the  type  of  men  to  be  selected 
as   office   bearers   in  the   Church    (3:1-13),    and   shows   concern 
about  the  order  and  conduct  of  Church  government  and  services 
of  worship  (2:  i,  2,  8;  3:  14,  15). 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  225 

THE  LETTER  TO  TITCS. 

Purpose  and  Content,  The  letter  is  one  of  counsel  and 
instruction  to  Titus,  whom  Paul  had  left  in  Crete  to  "set  in 
order  the  things  that  were  wanting  and  appoint  elders  in  every 
city"  (1:5).  The  apostle  urges  that  certain  qualifications  be 
observed  in  the  selection  of  these  office-bearers  (i  :  5-10),  and 
at  the  same  time  presents  a  lofty  moral  ideal  for  all  Christians, 
the  aged,  the  younger  people,  and  slaves  (2:1-15),  exhorting 
Titus  to  himself  present  an  example  of  good  works  (2 :  7,  8). 
With  i  Timothy  this  letter  lays  special  stress  on  "sound  doc- 
trine" and  "good  works."  The  aggressive,  original  work  of  the 
great  apostle  has  been  done,  his  chief  interest  now  is  in  guard- 
ing the  integrity  of  the  teaching  he  has  committed  to  his  dis- 
ciples and  protecting  the  fold  from  the  old  foes  against  whom 
he  had  often  striven  in  the  past  and  from  the  new  enemies  now 
for  the  first  time  appearing.  The  instructions  concerning  Church 
organization  and  administration  are  a  part  of  this  interest. 
These  letters  set  his  final  seal  to  the  work  and  teachings  of  his 
life." 

On  some  unknown  charge  the  aged  apostle  was  again  ar- 
rested, taken  for  the  second  time  to  Rome  as  a  prisoner,  and 
placed  on  trial.  At  his  first  hearing  he  was  not  condemned, 
but  was  remanded  for  further  trial.  From  his  dungeon  he 
writes  his  last  letter,  Second  Timothy. 

THE  SECOND  LETTER  TO  TIMOTHY. 

1.  Occasion  and  Purpose.     This  is  the  last  will  and  testa- 
ment of  the  great  apostle.  _  Addressed  to  his  beloved  son  Timothy, 
it  is  even  more  personal  in  tone  than  the  first  letter.     He  longs 
to  see  Timothy  yet  once  more ;  "Do  your  utmost  to  come  to  me 
soon,"   he   says    (3 : 8).      But   he   may    not   reach    him    in   time, 
therefore  he  exhorts  him  to  renewed  zeal,  courage,  and  activity 
(i  :  6,  7;  2:4-6),  to  keep  faithfully  the  trust  he  has  bequeathed 
to  him   (i  :  13,   14;  2:2,   15),  and  warns  him  of  perilous  times 
which  will  come   (3:1-17). 

2.  Paul's  Situation  Preceding  His  Death.     This  letter  brings 
us    very    near    to    the    persecuted    and    suffering    apostle.      His 
situation   in   these   last   days    is    in   some   respects   most   pitiable. 
One  and  another  of  his  friends  has  deserted  him  until,  save  for 
his   faithful   companion    in   travels,    Luke,   he   is   entirely   alone. 
The  government  is  now  his  fierce  f       (4:7).     His  imprisonment 
is  very  severe;   it  was  difficult  evf-    to  find  him    (i  :  i/).      He 
had    felt    many    times    before   the   pings    of    hunger    and    thirst 
without  a  word  of  complaint :   now,  u;  his  damp,  cold  dungeon 
Jie  sighs  for  his  cloak   (4:13).     The  only  prospect  before  him 
is  that  of  immediate  death    (3:6).     His  lonely  heart  cries  out 
for  sympathy  and  companionship  (4:9,  21).    But  in  spite  of  all, 

15 


226  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

there  runs  through  the  entire  letter  an  undertone  of  calm  cour- 
age  and   triumphant   faith. 

Some  time  about  67  A.  D.,  Paul's  expectation  of  martyr- 
dom was  fulfilled.  We  can  not  follow  him  to  the  unknown 
place  of  execution,  but  our  last  view  of  him  is  that  of  a  grand 
old  soldier,  bent  with  age,  broken  by  sufferings,  but  still  un- 
broken in  courage  and  faith,  rejoicing  in  the  companionship 
of  an  ever-present  Lord,  enduring  tribulation  with  patience 
and  persecution  with  joy;  assured  of  the  past,  rejoicing  in 
the  present,  confident  of  the  future.  He  faces  death  and  is 
more  than  content.  We  can  not  doubt  that  with  this  spirit 
he  met  the  ax  of  the  Roman  executioner. 


VI.   The  Man  and  His  Work. 

The  debt  of  the  Christian  world  to  Paul  could  hardly  be 
overstated.  He  found  Christianity  a  provincial  religion,  un- 
organized, unpopular  among  the  people  of  its  own  origin, 
unknown  to  the  world  at  large,  without  a  literature,  almost 
without  doctrinal  formulation,  and  with  exceedingly  few  in- 
fluential adherents.  At  his  death,  after  not  more  than  thirty- 
four  years,  largely  through  his  influence  and  activity  and 
that  of  his  personal  adherents,  Christianity  was  world-wide 
in  extent,  had  obtained  a  secure  foothold  in  most  of  the  im- 
portant centers  of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  the  religion  of 
many  thousands  of  Gentiles  as  well  as  Jews,  some  of  its  ad- 
herents belonging  to  the  highest  circles,  had  an  ecclesiastical 
organization,  had  been  formulated  into  doctrines  that  are 
still  held  by  large  portions  of  its  constituency,  and  had  called 
into  existence  the  larger  part  of  its  sacred  literature. 

Paul  was  peculiarly  fitted  by  nature  and  by  grace  for 
his  great  task.  He  possessed  to  a  remarkable  degree  the 
imperial  spirit.  He  could  not  possibly  have  been  the  leader 
of  a  sect  or  party.  He  was  the  first  of  the  followers  of  Jesus 
to  fully  perceive  the  universal  aspects  of  the  Christian  faith. 
Like  Alexander,  he  ever  sighed  for  new  worlds  to  conquer, 


LIFE  AND  LETTERS  OF  PAUL  227 

He  had  a  genius  for  organization.  He  transformed  the 
Christians  from  a  disorganized  band  fleeing  before  persecu- 
tion into  a  compact  army  advancing  to  world  conquest.  He 
lacked  the  poetical  mind,  was  not  interested  in  art,  and  seems 
to  have  been  entirely  blind  to  the  beauty  and  charms  of 
nature.  He  admits  also  that  he  lacked  the  polish  and  art  of 
the  classical  orator,  that  he  was  "rude  in  speech ;"  yet  by  his 
incisive  utterance,  logical  force,  ready  wit  and  sarcasm,  his 
adroitness  and  tact,  his  power  of  analysis,  his  emotional  fire, 
he  proved  to  be  a  most  powerful  advocate.  He  invariably 
compelled  assent  or  aroused  opposition.  He  had  a  finely 
strung  nervous  organization,  was  subject  to  visions  and  rev- 
elations, and  to  sudden  revulsions  of  feeling,  passing  in  a 
moment  from  calmness  to  vehemence,  from  affection  to  in- 
dignation. He  was  ever  a  man  of  intense  moral  conviction 
and  deep  religious  interest.  After  his  conversion  he  was 
wholly  given  up  to  his  Lord — with  all  the  wealth  of  his 
emotional  nature,  with  all  the  energies  of  his  physical  being, 
with  all  the  powers  of  his  mind,  absolutely  devoted  to  Jesus 
Christ.  He  was  a  slave  who  gloried  in  his  captivity.  Truly, 
for  him  to  live  was  Christ.  It  was  this  that  gave  him  his 
power.  Miracles  are  ascribed  to  him,  but  he  himself  attached 
little  importance  to  them;  he  "spake  with  tongues,"  but  did 
not  regard  the  fact  as  of  great  importance. 

The  Churches  loved  him.  Men  were  bound  to  him  by 
bonds  of  intense  brotherly  affection.  It  could  not  well  be 
otherwise  when  we  recall  the  deep  love  which  he  held  toward 
his  converts;  they  were  his  "children,"  and  he  yearned  after 
them  with  a  mother's  love. 

His  letters  were  doubtless  all  written  under  stress,  mes- 
sages of  the  hour,  and  the  immediate  occasion.  They  are  the 
letters  of  Paul,  the  missionary,  the  evangelist,  the  advocate; 
not  at  all  of  Paul  the  scholar  or  the  theologian.  He  never 
paused  to  polish  a  paragraph,  to  round  out  a  period,  or  to 
ffully  and  systematically  state  a  doctrine.  "His  thoughts  hurry 
each  other"  through  sentences  that  bear  the  impress  of  or- 


928  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

gency  and  haste.  Yet  from  this  very  fact  they  have  the  ad- 
vantage of  close  contact  with  practical  life;  they  touch  our 
lives  and  move  and  help  us  because  they  were  never  far  re- 
moved from  every-day  life.  They  have  a  perennial  freshness 
and  charm;  to  study  them  closely  at  any  time  is  to  find  in 
them  new  meaning  and  new  power. 


Lesson  Outline: 

Third  missionary  journey  and  imprisonment  in  Casarea  and 
Rome  (continued),  with  letters  written  during  the  pe- 
riod. 

The  closing  years,  with  letters  of  the  period. 
The  man  and  his  work. 


Books  for  Reference: 

Gilbert,  "The  Student's  Life  of  Paul.** 

Stalker,  "The  Life  of  Paul." 

Conybeare  &  Howson,  "Life  and  Epistles  of  PauL" 

Findley,  "The  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle." 

Stevens,  "The  Pauline  Theology." 

Sanday,  "Commentary  on  Romans." 

Hastings,  "One  Volume  Dictionary." 

'Commentaries  on  the  various  Epistles  in  the  "International 

Critical  Commentary"  series,  and  in  the  Cambridge  Bible 

for  Schools  and  Colleges. 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Paul  as  a  writer. 

2.  Paul  as  a  theologian. 

3.  Paul's  doctrine  of  the  future  life. 
|.  The  friends  of  Paul. 

5.  Greek  influence  in   the  teaching  of  Paul. 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  The  value  of  Roman  citizenship  to  Paul. 

2.  The  effect  of  Paul's  imprisonment  upon  him. 

3.  How  is  the  fact  to  be  accounted  for  that  one  man  had 
so  large  a  part  in  the  founding  of  the  Christian  Church 

among  the  Gentiles? 

4.  What  was  Paul's  claim  to  apostleship? 
5-  Discuss  the  religious  life  of  Timothy. 


LIFE  AXD  LETTERS  OF  PAUL 


229 


CHRONOLOGY  OF  THE  LIFE  OF  PAUL. 

According  to  Various  Scholars. 


O 

Events. 

H 

V 

3 

td 
w 

eo 
I 

o 

o 

2* 

o  " 

| 

0. 

f 

p 

1 

,» 

8° 

r 

- 

3 

36  (?) 

36  (34) 

34-35 

3o(?) 

36 

31-32 

33 

First  Visit  to  Jerusalem,  .   . 
First  Missionary  Journey,  . 

38(?) 
48-49 

38  (37) 
4«  (») 

37  (38) 
45-50 

45-46 

39 
46-49 

34-35 
Before 

35(?> 
47-49 

T           1 

.    , 

CQ  or  si 

45 

Second  Missionary  Journey, 

Si-54 

51 

51-54 

Si-54 

47 

48-50 

51-54 

46-49 

49 
50-53 

(52-55) 

Third  Missionary  Journey, 

54-58 

54-58 

54-58 

50-54 

54-58 

49-52 

53-57 

(55-59) 

Arrest  at  Jerusalem,  .  .   .   . 
First  Roman  Captivity,   .   . 

58 
61-63 

58 
61-63 

58  (59) 
61-63 

54 
57-59 

58 
61-63 

53 
56-58 

57 
fo-Sz 

(62-64) 

Death  

68 

68  (?) 

64 

65 

58 

67 

CHAPTER  XX 
GENERAL  EPISTLES  AND  REVELATION 

L  The  Catholic  Epistles. 

From  the  time  of  the  Church  Fathers  this  term  has  been 
employed  to  designate  the  group  of  seven  New  Testament 
books  bearing  the  names  of  James,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude. 
The  origin  and  meaning  of  the  term  in  this  connection  is  un- 
certain, but  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  was  applied  to 
these  letters  as  addressed,  not  to  individuals  or  particular 
Churches,  but  to  the  Church  universal,  or  to  groups  of 
Churches.  For  our  purpose  we  also  include  under  this  head 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

i.   THE  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 

Authorship.  The  author  styles  himself  "James,  a  servant 
of  God  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ"  (i :  i).  As  the  name 
was  very  common  among  the  Jews,  this  is  indecisive.  Tra- 
dition identifies  the  writer  as  James  the  Lord's  brother,  and 
this  is  generally  held  to  be  correct. 

To  Whom  Written.  "To  the  twelve  tribes  which  are  of 
the  dispersion,"  says  the  superscription  (1:1);  f.  e.,  Jewish 
Christians  outside  of  Palestine. 

Purpose.  To  fortify  Christians  in  their  trials  (1:2;  2: 
6-75  5:I~6)»  and  to  correct  errors  in  their  personal  conduct 
and  their  Church  life  (1:19-21;  2:14-26;  4:1  to  5:11;  2: 
1-9). 

General  Character.  The  epistle  is  characterized  by  (a)  a 
lack  of  plan;  one  subject  follows  another  without  any  appar- 

230 


GENERAL  EPISTLES  AND  REVELATION       231 

ent  order  or  connection  of  thought;  (b)  an  absence  of  de- 
veloped doctrine;  we  miss  the  doctrinal  emphasis  of  Paul's 
writings;  the  Christian  faith  is  stated  in  terms  of  moral  ex- 
cellence; he  that  doeth  righteousness  is  accepted  of  God  (c) 
a  pronounced  Jewish  tone;  reference  is  frequently  made  to 
the  law,  and  hardly  at  all  to  the  gospel,  and  there  is  a  marked 
dependence  on  the  wisdom  books  of  the  Old  Testament; 
(d)  its  reflection  of  the  sharp  social  contrasts  prevailing  in 
the  civilization  of  the  time;  (e)  its  nearness  to  nature,  and 
the  number  of  allusions  to  nature  and  to  natural  objects. 

2.   THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 

Authorship.  The  letter  names  Peter  as  the  author,  and 
this  has  seldom  been  disputed.  The  argument  for  its  gen- 
uineness is  very  strong. 

To  Whom  Written.  It  is  addressed  to  Christians  in  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  The  words  "the  elect  who  are  so- 
journers  of  the  dispersion"  (1:1)  points  to  Jews,  but  other 
statements,  as  2:9,  10 ;  4:3,  clearly  indicate  that  the  author 
also  had  Gentile  Christians  in  mind. 

Purpose.  Those  to  whom  the  apostle  writes  are  suffering 
severe  persecution  (1:7;  3 :  17;  4:  12),  and  he  writes  to  com- 
fort and  sustain  them.  The  letter  is  especially  rich  in  con- 
solation and  has  been  a  source  of  strength  to  those  in  trial 
through  all  ages.  They  were  also  subjected  to  manifold 
temptations  from  their  immoral  heathen  environment  (i: 
13-16;  2:11,  12;  4:1-6),  and  the  apostle  exhorts  them  to 
purity  and  holiness.  The  letter  has  many  words  and  phrases 
which  remind  us  of  Peter's  personality  and  of  incidents  in 
his  life. 

3.   THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 

Authorship.  This  letter  was  late  in  obtaining  recognition 
by  the  Church,  and  that  Peter  is  its  author  has  been  strenu- 
dusly  denied  by  many  authorities,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
Its  authorship  must  be  regarded  as  uncertain. 


232  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

To  Whom  Written.  The  letter  does  not  state;  Spitta  and 
Zahn,  two  scholars  who  have  elaborately  defended  the  Petrine 
authorship  of  the  Epistle,  hold  that  it  was  written  to  Jewish 
Christians. 

Purpose.  Three  prominent  passages  of  the  letter  speak  of 
false  teachers  (2:1-22;  3:3-7,  16).  These  statements  show 
the  main  purpose  to  be  to  guard  the  readers  against  heret- 
ical teachings. 

4.  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

Authorship.  This  Epistle,  in  common  with  Hebrews,  is 
peculiar  in  not  naming  an  author  in  the  superscription.  From 
a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of  the  Church  it  has  been 
almost  universally  attributed  to  the  Apostle  John. 

To  Whom  Written.  Probably  as  an  encyclical  letter  to 
Churches  in  Asia  Minor. 

Character  and  Purpose.  It  has  not  at  all  the  form  of  a 
letter,  lacking  not  only  an  address,  but  the  customary  per- 
sonal messages  and  greetings.  It  is  more  nearly  a  sermon  or 
pastoral  address.  The  purpose  is  stated  in  1:3,  4,  to  be  that 
the  readers  may  have  fellowship  with  the  writer,  himself  an 
eye-witness  of  the  Word  of  Life,  and  share  his  fellowship 
with  the  Father  and  with  Jesus  Christ,  and  thereby  make  his 
joy  full.  To  this  end  he  proceeds  to  announce  the  message 
which  he  has  received,  laying  special  stress  upon  certain  con- 
ceptions and  truths,  as  follows:  God  is  light  (1:5);  they 
who  truly  have  fellowship  with  him  "walk  in  the  light,"  i.  e., 
do  deeds  of  practical  righteousness  (1:6,  7;  2:9-11;  3: 
17-23);  the  love  of  God  for  His  children  (3:1,. 2;  4:8-11, 
16,  19) ;  the  obligation  of  Christians  to  love  one  another 
(2:10;  3:10-24;  4:7-21;  5:1,  2);  the  propitiatory  work  of 
Jesus  Christ  (1:7;  2:1,  2;  4:10).  Other  prominent  ideas 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel  are  emphasized,  as  "abiding  in  Christ" 
(2:24,  28,  and  elsewhere). 


GENERAL  EPISTLES  AND  REVELATION       233 

5,  6.  THE  SECOND  AND  THIRD  EPISTLES  OF  JOHN. 

Authorship.  Undoubtedly  by  the  same  author  as  the  First 
Epistle. 

To  Whom  Written.  The  Second  Epistle  to  a  particular 
individual,  or  to  a  Church;  the  third  to  a  certain  Gaius. 

Character  and  Purpose.  Both  letters  are  personal;  the 
first  to  warn  against  false  teachers,  whom  he  has  reason  to 
believe  those  addressed  are  in  danger  of;  the  second  to  com- 
mend the  hospitality  and  Christian  character  of  Gaius  and 
to  assure  him  of  the  writer's  expectation  of  a  visit  shortly. 

7.  THE  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE. 

Authorship.  The  superscription  names  as  the  author 
"Jude,  a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  brother  of  James;"  by 
which  is  probably  meant  that  Jude  who  was  a  brother  of 
James,  the  author  of  the  Epistle  and  brother  of  our  Lord. 

To  Whom  Written.  The  intended  readers  are  unnamed, 
and  there  are  no  means  of  determining  who  they  may  have 
been.  • 

Purpose.  The  situation  closely  resembles  that  of  Second 
Peter.  False  teachers,  who  are  also  immoral  in  conduct, 
have  come  in  and  boldly  propagate  their  errors  in  the  meet- 
ings of  the  congregation.  The  author  writes  to  expose  and 
condemn  these  ungodly  men,  and  to  exhort  his  readers  to 
adhere  to  and  contend  for  the  true  faith,  and  to  exemplify 
purity  of  life.  The  letter  contributes  to  an  appreciation  of 
the  extent  and  seriousness  of  the  difficulties  with  which  the 
early  Church  had  to  contend. 

8.    HEBREWS. 

Authorship.  Many  different  names  have  been  proposed, 
but  scholars  have  never  been  able  to  come  to  agreement 
The  one  almost  unanimous  opinion  is  that  it  was  not  writ- 
ten by  the  Apostle  PauL 


234  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

To  Whom  Written.  Probably  to  Jewish  Christians  of 
some  definite  locality. 

Purpose.  To  prevent  apostasy  from  Christianity  to  Juda- 
ism, or,  as  suggested  by  some  writers,  to  prevent  apostasy 
from  Christianity  altogether.  (Note,  e.  g.,  3:12-15;  10: 
23-39.) 

Contents.  The  author  endeavors  to  achieve  his  purpose 
by  elaborately  setting  forth  in  a  series  of  comparisons  the 
superiority  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  to  that  which  pre- 
ceded it.  The  keyword  of  the  book  is  "better."  The  central 
thought  of  Christ  is  that  of  His  priestly  function,  by  which 
Christians  are  enabled  to  have  free  access  to  God,  and  are 
brought  into  filial  relation  with  Him.  The  apologetic  pres- 
entation (1:1 — 10:18)  is  followed  by  a  series  of  urgent  ex- 
hortations to  steadfastness  (10:19 — 13125).  The  following 
outline  of  the  argumentative  section  will  enable  the  student 
to  trace  the  course  of  the  argument:  (i)  The  revelation 
through  the  Son  superior  to  that  through  the  prophets  (l : 
1-3);  (2)  to  that  through  angels  (1:4 — 2:18);  (3)  the 
Son  higher  than  Moses  the  faithful  servant  (3 : 1-6)  ;  the 
statement  followed  by  warnings  and  exhortations  (3 : 7 — 
4 : 13)  ;  (4)  the  Son  a  High  Priest  superior  to  Aaron  and 
his  successors  (5:  i — 10: 18),  not  of  the  Levitical  line,  but  of 
the  order  of  Melchisedek,  the  ideal  type. 

IL   The  Book  of  Revelation. 

Authorship.  The  writer  speaks  of  himself  as  John,  serv- 
ant of  God.  He  has  been  generally  identified  with  John, 
author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  but  this  is  disputed  on  various 
grounds  by  many  modern  scholars.  Some  assign  it  to  an- 
other John,  the  presbyter;  others  to  an  unknown  author. 

Character  and  Purpose.  Revelation  stands  almost  alone 
in  the  Scripture.  With  Daniel  it  belongs  to  that  class  of 
Jewish  writing  which  succeeded  prophecy,  the  Apocalypses. 
Many  examples  are  found  in  the  Jewish  literature  of  the  pe- 
riod. This  literature  was  the  outgrowth  of  persecution  and 


GENERAL  EPISTLES  AND  REVELATION      235 

spiritual  and  temporal  distress,  and  was  written  "to  solve  the 
difficulties  connected  with  a  belief  in  God's  righteousness  and 
the  suffering  condition  of  His  servants  on  earth."  (Charles.) 
The  writer  would  beget  patience,  resignation,  steadfastness, 
and  endurance  in  his  readers  by  the  assurance  that  in  spite 
of  present  distress  God  intends  a  mighty  and  sure  deliver- 
ance for  His  people.  The  message  is  couched  in  obscure 
symbols,  images,  and  in  visions. 

Interpretation  and  Present  Value.  The  key  to  the  mean- 
ing of  much  of  the  book  is  not  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
Church.  Innumerable  schemes  of  interpretation  have  been 
applied'to  the  visions  as  prophecies  of  the  present  and  of  the 
future,  with  the  result  of  confusion  and  grave  error.  The 
value  of  the  book  lies  not  in  a  disclosure  of  unseen  mysteries, 
but  in  its  testimony  to  the  faith  and  hope  of  the  persecuted 
Church  of  Christ  and  its  power  to  comfort,  sustain,  and  in- 
spire burdened,  sorrowing,  and  oppressed  souls  of  every  age. 

Lesson  Outline: 

The   Catholic    Epistles :   James,    First    Peter,    Second    Peter, 
First  John,    Second  John,   Third  John,  Jude,   Hebrews. 
The  Book  of  Revelation. 


Books  for  Reference: 

Bennett,  "The  General  Epistles." 

Plummer,  "The  Epistles  of  St.  John." 

Lumby,  "The  Epistles  of  St.  Peter." 

Farrar,  "The  Messages  of  the  Books.** 

Commentaries  on  separate  Epistles:  James,  Mayor,  "The 
Epistle  of  James ;"  Hebrews,  Goodspeed,  "Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews ;"  Revelation,  Swete,  "The  Apocalypse  of  St. 
John." 

Topics  for  Special  Study: 

1.  Comparison  of  the  Book  of  James  with  the   Sermon  on 

the  Mount. 

2.  The   teaching   of   First  John   as   related   to   the   Fourth 
«.  Gospel. 

3.  The  purpose  of  the   Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

4.  Non-biblical  apocalyptic  literature  of  the  Jewa. 


236  THE  WORKER  AND  HIS  BIBLE 

Topics  for  Class  Discussion: 

1.  Reasons   for  holding  that  Hebrews   was   not  written  by 

Paul. 

2.  Principal  teachings  of  First  Peter. 

3.  The  state  of  the   Church   as   reflected   in  the  letters  to 

Timothy  and  to  Titus. 

4.  As  reflected  in  the  first  three  chapters  of  Revelation. 

5.  The  counsels  of  Paul  to  teachers  in  the  epistles  to  Tim- 

othy and  to  Titus. 


INDEX 


Acts  of  the  Apostles,  The,  1950°; 

authorship,  195 ;    purpose,  195 ; 

content  and  character,  195. 
Ages  to  the  Bible,  The  testimony 

of,  35- 

Amos,  taSfif ;  teaching  and  signifi- 
cance of  his  message,  129. 

Apostolic  Church,  The,  I97ff. 

Attitude  of  mind  and  heart  in 
Bible  study,  The,  54. 

Bible,  The,  a  body  of  literature,  7 ; 
a  collection  of  books,  7 ;  records 
of  divine  revelation,  16;  essen- 
tial unity  of,  19 ;  uniqueness  of, 
21  ,•  how  we  got  our,  23 ;  trans- 
lations of,  26 ;  why  study,  35  ; 
literary  excellence  of,  36 ;  unique 
religious  value  of,  38;  how 
study,  46. 

Bible  message,  The  response  of 
the  human  heart  and  conscience 
to  the,  19. 

Bible  study  and  a  knowledge  of 
literature  and  history,  37. 

Bible  study  by  books,  suggestions 
for,  52. 

Bible  study,  the  literary  method 
of,  47  ;  devotional,  47;  dangers 
of  unsystematic,  47;  topical 
method  of,  49;  by  characters, 
49;  by  books,  50;  critical  method 
of,  51 ;  attitude  of  mind  and 
heart  in,  54. 

Canon  of  Scripture,  The,  23. 
Canon,  The  Origin  and  Growth  of 

the  Ne%v  Testament,  24. 
Canon,  The  Origin  and  Growth  of 

the  Old  Testament,  23. 
Catholic  Epistles,  The,  23off. 
Children  among  the  Jews,i6i. 


Chronicles,  The  Books  of,  89. 

Church,  The  Apostolic,  T97ff; 
founding  of,  I97f ;  early  hietory 
in  Jerusalem,  198 ;  growth  under 
persecution,  199 ;  organization 
and  development  of,  201. 

Code,  The  Deuteronomic,  71. 

Code,  The  Priestly,  73. 

Colossians,  The  letter  to  the,  222. 

Corinth,  The  church  of,  217. 

Corinthians,  First  letter  to  the, 
216. 

Corinthians,  Second  letter  to  the, 
219. 

Covenant,  The  Book  of  the,  71. 

Daniel,  The  message  of,  148. 

David  and  his  reign,  83. 

Decalogue,  The,  70. 

Devotion,  The  place  of  Psalms  hi 
the  life  of,  104. 

Devotional  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, 103. 

Devotional  Literature  of  the  OW 
Testament,  n,  990". 

Deuteronomic  Code,  The,  71. 

Divine  Element  in  the  Bible,  Evi- 
dences of  the,  18. 

Ecclesiastes,  The  Book  of,  iigff; 
contents  of,  119;  the  significance 
of,  120. 

Elijah  and  Elisha,  From  Moses 
to,  125. 

Ephesians,  The  letter  to  the,  223. 

Epistles  and  Revelation,  The  Gen- 
eral, 230. 

Esther,  The  Book  of,  90. 

Exile,  The,  87f ;  and  the  Restora- 
tion, 95. 

Exodus,  63f; 

Ezekiel,  The  Message  of,  142. 


237 


•38 


INDEX 


Galatians,  The  letter  to  the,  215. 

Genesis,  Contents  of  the  book  of, 
60  ;  significance  of,  61. 

Gentiles,  Extension  of  the  Gospel 
to,  200. 

Gospel  of  John,  189 ;  authorship, 
18-) ;  author,  190 ;  purpose,  191 ; 
contents  and  characteristics, 
igif. 

Gospel  of  Luke,  i85f;  authorship, 
i8r ;  author,  186;  purpose,  186; 
contents  and  characteristics,  186. 

Gospel  of  Mark,  The,  183 ;  author- 
ship, 183 ;  author,  183  ;  purpose, 
183 ;  contents  and  character,  184. 

Gospel  of  Matthew,  lygff;  author- 
ship, 179;  the  author,  180;  pur- 
pose 181  ;  contents  and  charac- 
teristics, 182. 

Gospels,  The,  i74ff;  time  repre- 
sented in  writing,  and  literary 
form,  175;  resemblances  and 
differences  of,  177. 

Government  of  Palestine  preced- 
ing the  Christian  era,  153  ;  dur- 
ing the  lifetime  of  Jesus,  156. 

Habakkuk,  The  message  of,  141. 
Haggai,  The  message  of,  144. 
Hebrews,  The  Book  of,  233. 
Historical  Literature  of  the  Old 

Testament,  12. 
Holiness,  The  law  of,  72. 
Home  life  of  the  Jewish  people, 

160. 
Hosea,  I3of ;  the  teaching  of,  131. 

Isaiah,  i3if;  his  message,  131, 
143 ;  the  work  and  teaching  of, 
152. 

James,  The  Epistle  of,  230. 

Jeremiah,  The  message  of,  137. 

Jesus  and  the  prophets,  149. 

Jesus,  The  life  of,  i63ff;  sources 
for,  i63f ;  birth  and  early  life, 
i64f;  the  public  ministry,  166; 
the  Passion  week  and  the  forty 
days,  169 ;  chronological  outline 
of,  173- 

Job,  The  Book  of,  116;  contents 
of,  117;  the  problem  of,  118. 


Joel,  The  message  of,  146. 
John,  The  Gospel  of,  1890". 
John,  The  First  Epistle  of,  232. 
John,    The   Second    and    Third 

Epistles  of,  233. 
Jonah,  The  message  of,  147. 
Joshua,  The  Book  of,  64f. 
Jude,  The  Epistle  of,  233. 
Judea,  The  Location  of,  155. 
Judges  and  the  United  Monarchy, 

The,  76. 

Judges  and  their  work,  The,  77. 
Judges,  The  Book  of,  76. 
Judges,    The    period   of  the,  78; 

conditions  in  Palestine   at  the 

beginning  of,  78;    the  several 

crises  during,  78. 

Kingdom,   The   Division   of  the, 

91  f. 
Kingdom,    Important    events    itj 

the  history  of  the  Northern,  92. 
Kingdom,    Important    events    in 

the  history  of  the  Southern,  94. 
Kings,  The  Books  of,  80,  88. 

Lamentations,  The  Book  of,  104. 
Law  Codes,  69 ;  Dates,  69. 
Legal  Literature,  12. 
Legal    System  of    the    Hebrews, 

The  Origin  of,  68. 
Literary  excellence  of  the  Bible, 

36. 
Literature    and    history,    Bible 

study  and  a  knowledge  of,  37. 
Luke,  The  Gospel  of,  iB^f. 

Maccabean  period,  The,  153. 
Malachi,  The  message  of,  146. 
Mark,  The  Gospel  of,  i83f ;  author. 

ship,  183    author,  183 ;  purpose, 

183 ;  contents  and  character,  184. 
Matthew,    The    Gospel   of,    i7gf; 

authorship,     179;    the    author, 

180 ;  purpose,  181 ;  contents  and 

characteristics,  182. 
Micah    and    his    message,   The 

prophet,  134. 
Monarchy,  Events  leading  to  the 

establishment  of,  81. 
Monarchy,  The  divided,  87. 
Monarchy,  The  united,  82. 


INDEX 


239 


Moses,  I24ff;  from  Moses  to  Elijah 
and  Elisha,  125. 

Nahum,  The  Message  of,  140. 

Nehemiah  to  the  opening  of  the 
Christian  era,  From,  97. 

New  Testament,  Contents  of  the, 
8 ;  transmission  of  the,  25 ;  per- 
manent religious  value  of  the, 
42 ;  the  books  of  the,  8,  163 ; 
time  of  writing  the,  175 ;  lan- 
guageofthe,  175;  dates  assigned 
to  the  books  of  the,  176. 

New  Testament  came  to  be,  How 
the,  175. 

New  Testament  Canon,  Origin  atid 
growth  of,  24. 

New  Testament  estimate  of  the 
Bible,  16. 

New  Testament  literature,  Various 
kinds  of,  13. 

New  Testament  times,  153. 

Numbers,  The  Book  of,  64. 

Obadiah,  The  message  of,  141. 

Old  Testament,  Contents  of  the, 
8;  books  of  the,  8;  different 
kinds  ot  literature  in,  9;  pro- 
phetic literature  of,  10 ;  wisdom 
literature  of,  10,  in;  devotional 
literature  of,  n,  99,  103;  legal 
literature  of,  12;  historical  litera- 
ture of,  12  ;  transmission  of,  25  ; 
permanent  religious  significance 
of,  40;  poetry  in,  99;  speculative 
wisdom  in,  116. 

Old  Testament  canon,  Origin  and 
growth  of  the,  23. 

Palestine,  physical  and  political 
geography  of,  155  ;  political  and 
religious  parties  in,  157. 

Parallelism,  Antithetic,  101. 

Parallelism,  Synthetic,  or  Con- 
structive, 102. 

Parallelism,  Synonymous,  101. 

Paul,  The  birth  and  childhood  of, 
205;  education,  206;  early  career, 

«.  207  ;  conversion  and  early  Chris- 

.  tian  life,  2O7f ;  career  as  apostle 
to  the  Gentiles,  210;  first  mis- 


sionary journey,  210;  second 
missionary  journey,  212 ;  third 
missionary  journey,  219;  the 
closing  years,  223  ;  his  situation 
preceding  his  death,  225 ;  the 
man  and  his  work,  226 ;  chro- 
nology of  the  life  of,  229. 

Paul,  The  life  and  letters  of,  205. 

Pentateuch,  The,  59;  historical 
portions  of,  59;  legal  portions 
of,  68f. 

Peter,  The  First  Epistle  of,  231. 

Peter,  The  Second  Epistle  of,  231. 

Pharisees,  The,  157. 

Philemon,  The  letter  to,  222. 

Philippians,  The  letter  to  the,  222. 

Philosophy  among  the  Hebrews, 
in. 

Pious,  The,  159. 

Poetic    composition,    Species   of, 

IO2. 

Poetry  in  the  Old  Testament,  99. 

Poetry,  essential  characteristics 
of,  loo. 

Prophecy,  The  nature  and  func- 
tion of  Hebrew,  124. 

Prophet  of  Israel,  Moses  the  first 
great,  124;  the  literary  prophets 
and  their  dates,  126 ;  the  task 
of  the  eighth  century  prophets, 
127 ;  the  seventh  century  proph- 
ets, 137;  the  prophets  of  the 
exile,  141 ;  prophets  after  the 
exile,  144. 

Prophetic  Literature,  10. 

Proverbs,  The  Book  of,  113;  con- 
tents of,  113;  value  of,  115. 

Psalms  and  the  rest  of  the  Old 
Testament,  105. 

Psalms  in  the  life  of  devotion, 
The  place  of,  104. 

Psalms,  The  book  of,  104. 

Psalms,  The  classification  of,  losff. 

Psalms,  The  date  and  authorship 
of  the,  108. 

Psalter,  The  compilation  of  the, 
109. 

Reformation,   Bible   Translations 

of  the  period  of  the,  28. 
Religious  value  of  the  Bible,  The 

unique,  38. 


240 


INDEX 


Religious  and  Social  conditions 
in  the  lifetime  of  JeSus,  159. 

Response  of  the  human  heart  and 
conscience  to  the  Bible  message, 

19- 

Revelation,  The  Book  of,  234. 
Roman  period,  The,  154. 
Romans,  The  letter  to  the,  220. 
Ruth,  T'he  Book  of,  76. 

Sadducees,  The,  158. 

Samaria,  The  location  of,  155. 

Samaritans,  The,  159. 

Samuel,  The  Books  of,  80. 

Saul  and  his  reign,  82. 

Solomon  and  his  reign,  84. 

Song  of  Songs,  The  Book  of,  I2iff ; 
different  interpretations  of,  121  ; 
the  aim  of,  122. 

Speculative  Wisdom  in  the  Old 
Testament,  116. 

Study  the  Bible,  How  to,  46; 
reading  is  not  study,  46 ;  literary 
method  of,  47  ;  devotional,  47  ; 
dangers  of  unsystematic  study, 
47;  by  characters,  49;  topical, 
49;  by  books,  50,  52;  critical 
method,  51 ;  attitude  of  mind 
and  heart  in,  54. 


Testimony  of  the  ag  s  to  the 
Bible,  35. 

Thessalonians,  First  letter  to  the, 
214. 

Thessalonians,  Second  letter  to 
the,  214. 

Timothy,  The  first  le'   ir  to,  •724. 

Timothy,  The  second  letter  to, 
225. 

Translations  of  the  Bible,  20 ; 
early  translations,  26;  early 
Anglo-Saxon  and  early  English, 
27 ;  of  the  period  of  the  Refor- 
mation, 28. 

Version,  The  Authorized,  31. 
Version,   The  American  Revised, 

33- 
Version,  The  "English"  T  ^vised, 

32. 

Wisdom  Literature,  10,  mff. 
Wisdom  movement,   The  growth 

of  the,  112. 
Wise  Men,  The  aim  and  f,   iction 

of  the,  in. 

Zealots,  The,  158. 
Zechariah,  The  message  of, 
Zephaniah,  The  message  01 


x^^^X. 


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